The subject of work of a management specialist is a manager. The work activity of a manager, its peculiarities. Concepts: management and management
INTRODUCTION TO MANAGEMENT THEORY
CONCEPTS: MANAGEMENT AND MANAGEMENT
The emergence of management as a special type of human activity goes back centuries. It is due to the need to organize and coordinate the joint work of people (for example, hunting, cattle breeding, farming, ensuring security, etc.). In this sense control- this is the conscious activity of a person in organizing the joint work of people to achieve their goals.
With the development of society, an objective need arose to manage other areas of human activity. Currently, the following types of management can be distinguished (Fig. 1.1).
Rice. 1.1. Types of control
Technical management- management of technological processes, movement of technical equipment (airplanes, cars, etc.).
Ideological management- introduction into the consciousness of a person (members of society) of the concepts of social development, formed by various political parties.
Social management- purposeful influence on society to streamline, preserve, improve and develop its certain qualitative specificity. In practice there are two types social management: spontaneous and conscious. In the first case, the impact on society occurs as a result of the interaction of various social forces (traditions, customs, etc.), the second one presupposes the presence of special governing bodies operating according to a given program.
Public administration- management of the socio-economic life of society through various institutions (legal system, ministries, departments, etc.).
Municipal government- component local government associated with the regulating influence of organs municipal government on municipality and its interaction with subjects in order to improve the level and quality of life of the population of the municipality.
Economic management- management of production and economic activities of commercial and non-profit organizations operating in market conditions.
Considering the above, the term “management” can be given the most general definition.
MANAGEMENT is the conscious, purposeful activity of a person, with the help of which he organizes and subordinates to his interests the elements of the external environment (society, living and inanimate nature, technology).
Management can also be considered as a certain type of interaction that exists between two subjects, one of which in this interaction is in the position of the subject of management, and the second in the position of the object of management. From this point of view, another definition of the concept “management” would be legitimate.
MANAGEMENT - the influence of the subject of management on everything that he is trying to subordinate to his will, change, transform, direct to achieve the goal.
According to this definition, in any organization one can distinguish control and controlled subsystems, each of which has a certain independence and its own purpose.
Control part(subject of control)- this is the director, managers of middle and lower management levels. The part (of the organization) to which the control action is directed is control object. Objects of management can be production and other processes, types of activities (finance, marketing, innovation, etc.), departments, and individual employees.
The interaction between the subject and the control object is characterized by the following points:
1) the subject of management sends orders to the object of management, which contain information about what he must do;
2) the control object receives and executes the orders of the control subject.
Conditions for effective interaction between the subject and the control object:
They must match each other;
The subject and object of management must have relative independence;
They need to carry out two-way interaction among themselves, based on the principles of feedback;
They should be interested in clear interaction: one - in issuing the commands necessary in a given situation, the other - in timely and accurate execution.
Management activities represents a specific type of labor process, and therefore is characterized by all its inherent elements - the subject of labor, the means of labor, the labor itself, as well as its result.
The subject and product of labor in management is information. In the first case (as a subject of labor), it is “raw” and therefore cannot be used in practice. As a result of management activities, a decision is formed on the basis of information, based on which the management object can take specific actions.
With the transition to market relations, the term “management”, which is of American origin, began to be widely used in our country.
In practice, this term primarily characterizes management processes economic activity organizations operating in a competitive market environment. In this sense, the concept of “management” is less capacious than the concept of “management”.
The most common definitions of the term “management” in modern literature.
MANAGEMENT –
- management in socio-economic systems (organizations) in conditions of market relations;
- independent view professional activity on managing an organization or its specific area.
Consequently, in relation to an organization operating in market conditions, the concept of “management” is adequate to the concept of “management”. Therefore, the terms “management” and “management” can be considered and used as synonyms.
In modern Russian practice, the term “management” is also used in the following meanings:
Management Science;
The governing body and the people who make it up.
The main element underlying management is the professional nature of management activities, the implementation of which is entrusted to the manager.
MANAGER -
Hired professional manager;
Management Specialist;
A member of the organization's workforce who carries out management activities and solving management problems.
The work of a manager, compared to other types of work in an organization, has significant features:
1) this is, first of all, mental work, consisting of analytical, organizational, administrative, educational, information technology and other activities;
2) the subject of a manager’s work is information, and the means of labor are organizational and computer technology;
The result of a manager’s work is the decision made and the organization of its implementation by other employees.
Consequently, the manager participates in the creation of material wealth indirectly through the labor of his subordinates.
It is necessary to distinguish between concepts "manager" And "entrepreneur".
Entrepreneur -
An independent subject of market relations, acting at his own peril and risk, under his own responsibility (material, social, criminal) in order to make a profit;
A capable citizen engaged in entrepreneurial activities.
Entrepreneurs are characterized by an innovative spirit of behavior and a constant pursuit of knowledge, which is the basis of entrepreneurship. A civilized entrepreneur also has all the traits necessary for a manager.
Modern society is often characterized by the term “informational,” meaning the colossal amount of information functioning in the world: over the past 30 years, its annual growth has increased more than 15 times.
To characterize the volume of information that one has to work with in physical culture and sports organizations, we will give just one example: in 2000, the State Committee of the Russian Federation for physical culture, sports and tourism received more than 7 thousand incoming documents (3,253 government documents and 3,812 documents from ministries, departments and public organizations); 5544 outgoing documents were registered.
Information(in the very general view) understood as the content of language between interacting objects(exchange of signals in the quota and plant world; exchange of information between people, man and machine, machine and machine, etc.). This attention allows us to conclude that the problem of information is a general scientific one.
The complexity and ambiguity of the phenomenon of information are the reasons for the current existence of a significant number of definitions of this concept, studied by representatives of various branches of knowledge. In this section of the manual, attention will be focused on a brief examination of the essence of information from the point of view of management (management).
From a theoretical perspective, understanding management information is associated with an ordered reflection, with the expression of a certain difference and diversity. This means that the characteristics of management information should include both its content and the form of presentation.
In terms of content, management information is a control message sent by the subject of management to the object of management and thus ensuring the management process. In the process of management (management), information solves two main problems: firstly, it serves as a special form of communication within the system, and also ensures the connection of the system with external environment and, secondly, it is the direct reason for the system’s choice of a certain variant of its behavior, the basis for the development of management decisions.
From a practical point of view, management information represents a variety of information about persons, objects, facts, events, phenomena and processes, regardless of the form of their presentation. The greatest significance is that management information that is recorded on any tangible medium with the necessary details that allow it to be identified. Such information (according to the form of presentation) is usually called documented. However, in management practice, undocumented information is also used, obtained, as a rule, through informal communication channels.
Management information has some specific features: firstly, it reflects the properties of a certain material object and therefore has a specific source of origin; secondly, it has some properties of matter, which allows it to be received, accumulated, destroyed and transmitted; thirdly, when transmitting information, its quantity in the control subject (transmitting system) remains unchanged, but in the control object (receiving system) usually increases; fourthly, information is the only type of resource that, in the course of the historical development of mankind, not only has not been depleted, but is constantly increasing, improving and, moreover, contributes to the effective use of other resources, and sometimes creates new ones.
The above allows us to characterize information as an object, means and product of a manager’s labor.
Summarizing what has been said, we state that from the point of view of management (management) information is a collection of information about the state and changes of the control object(managed part of the system) and the subject of management(control part of the system), as well as the external environment, which reduces the degree of uncertainty of knowledge about a specific object.
Management information can be classified on various grounds:
distinguished according to the form of display visual(visuals in the form of texts, tables, pictures, etc.), auditory(auditory signal) and audiovisual(combination of visual and auditory signal) information;
According to sources, information is divided into external And internal, incoming And outgoing;
classified according to the degree of processing primary(information arriving at the control object), production(primary information processed at the control object) and final(the result of processing primary information, ready for transmission) information;
It is customary to distinguish by time of use constant(used systematically for a long time) temporary(not used systematically over a limited period of time) information;
if possible, the information may be authentic(corresponding to reality, suitable) and defective(not corresponding to reality, unsuitable), etc.
a) information
b) solutions
c) powers
d) power
3-437. The general functions of the manager have been identified in the school management process …
A) scientific management(rationalistic)
b) psychological and human relations
c) management sciences (quantitative)
e) classical (administrative)
4-438. Manager’s order: “Solve the problem, report to me what you intend to do. If I don’t mind, do what you have planned” - corresponds to the option of delegation of responsibility:
a) the subordinate develops his potential, the boss wants to see the problem and The best decision
b) the boss trusts the subordinate, but does not allow him to act without his own approval
c) the boss completely trusts the subordinate, he is only interested in the final result
d) the boss respects the abilities and opinions of the subordinate, but wants to make sure that the decision is correct.
5-439. The manager's division of labor by function corresponds to ... type.
a) horizontal
b) professional qualification
c) technological
d) structural
6-440. The individual style of a manager is determined by:
a) choice of management methods;
b) education
c) work experience
d) the degree of freedom in making decisions for subordinates
7-441. Correspondence of types of work that must be delegated to subordinates and that are not subject to delegation:
1) the manager must delegate to subordinates
2) not subject to delegation
a) setting goals
b) routine work
8-442. The limited right to use the organization's resources and direct the efforts of employees to perform certain tasks is
1) powers
2) responsibility
4) delegation
9-443. The manager's job is...
1) solution
3) obligation
4) information
10-444. Components of the decision-making role of managers:
2) initiation of new projects
3) motivation of subordinates
4) settlement of disputes and other problems
Module 5 MOTIVATION OF ACTIVITIES
Lesson 1
Target: Consider the motivational process and features of theories of the content of motivation
Tasks:
Know what motivation is.
Be able to depict a diagram of the motivational process.
Be able to classify theories of the content of motivation
Be able to compare theories of the content of motivation
Literature:
1. Vikhansky O.S., Naumov A.I. Management: Textbook. – 3rd ed. – M.: Economist, 2003. – P. 131-181.
2. Basovsky L.E. Management. Tutorial, 2003 – pp. 122-131.
3. Fandina V.G. Management. Textbook, 2004. – Module 5.
Motivation Concepts
Motivation is the process of motivating oneself and others to act to achieve personal or organizational goals.
"Carrot and stick method" well known for centuries. In legends and myths you can find many stories in which kings hold a reward before the eyes of the hero or raise a sword over his head. For a long time, it was taken for granted that people would be grateful for anything that would allow them and their families to survive. Gradually, people's lives began to improve, and managers began to understand that a simple “carrot” does not always make a person work harder.
Needs and requirements. A person experiences need when he physiologically or psychologically feels a lack of something. In accordance with the cultural structure, a need can acquire the character of a specific need. Most psychologists agree that needs can in principle be classified as primary needs, often called needs, and secondary needs, or simply needs.
Primary Needs are innate in nature, they are genetically determined. These are the needs for food, water, the need to breathe, sleep, the need for communication.
Secondary needs by their nature are related to the cultural way of life and are realized through experience. Among them, a prominent place is occupied by socio-psychological ones, for example, the needs for success, respect, affection, power and the need to belong to someone or something. People have different life experiences, so secondary needs vary significantly.
Motivational behavior is that human needs serve as a motive for action. In this regard, motivation is considered as a feeling of lack of something, which has a certain direction. It is a behavioral manifestation of a need and is focused on achieving a goal, which is perceived as a means of satisfying the need. When a person achieves such a goal, his need is satisfied, partially satisfied or unsatisfied.
Problems of motivation through needs due to the fact that there are many different specific human needs, goals that, according to different people, lead to the satisfaction of their needs, and types of behavior in achieving these goals. The structure of a person’s needs is determined by his place in the social structure, cultural structure and acquired experience. Therefore, there is no one way to motivate the best way. What is effective for motivating some people may not be effective for others.
Reward- this is what a person considers valuable to himself. People's perceptions of value vary greatly, as do their assessments of rewards.
Intrinsic reward- this is the satisfaction that the work itself brings. Thus, internal reward is the feeling of achieving a result, the content and significance of the work performed, and self-esteem. Friendship and communication that arise during work are also internal rewards. The simplest way of internal reward is the creation of appropriate working conditions and precise task setting.
Extrinsic reward provided by the organization. Examples of extrinsic rewards include salary, promotions, symbols of job prestige, praise and recognition, as well as fringe benefits and vacations.
Motivational process
Motivation, considered as a process, can theoretically be represented in the form of six successive stages, Figure 30.
Figure 30 – Scheme of the motivational process
First stage– emergence of needs. At this stage, a need arises, it manifests itself in the fact that a person begins to feel that he is missing something.
Second stage- finding ways to eliminate the need. Once a need has arisen and creates problems for a person, he begins to look for opportunities to eliminate it: satisfy, suppress, not notice.
Third stage– determination of goals (directions) of action. At this stage, four points are linked:
ü what should I get to eliminate the need;
ü what should I do to get what I want;
ü to what extent can I achieve what I want;
ü how much what I can get can eliminate the need.
Fourth stage– implementation of an action. At this stage, a person expends effort in order to carry out actions that should ultimately provide him with the opportunity to obtain something in order to eliminate the need. At this stage, adjustments to goals may occur.
Fifth stage– receiving a reward for performing an action. At this stage, it becomes clear to what extent the implementation of actions gave the desired result. Depending on this, there is either a weakening, preservation, or strengthening of motivation to action.
Sixth stage– elimination of need. Depending on the degree of relief of tension caused by the need, as well as on whether the elimination of the need causes a weakening or strengthening of motivation for activity, the person either stops the activity before a new need arises, or continues to look for opportunities and take actions to eliminate the need.
Law of Result is that the degree of satisfaction obtained from achieving a goal affects a person’s behavior in similar circumstances in the future. In accordance with this law, people tend to repeat the behavior that they associate with satisfying a need, and avoid behavior that is associated with insufficient satisfaction. If specific types of behavior are rewarded in some way, then people remember how they managed to achieve this. The next time a person encounters a problem, he tries to solve it in a proven way.
Cash reward- the most obvious way in which an organization can reward employees, but estimates of the size of monetary rewards are contradictory. Proponents of human relations theory argue that people's social needs are most important, while proponents of scientific management theory believe that material rewards necessarily lead to increased motivation.
Behavioral researchers have found that only under certain conditions does an increase in wages stimulate an increase in labor productivity. The first one is that people should attach great importance to salary. The second is that people must believe that there is a clear connection between wages and productivity, that increased productivity will necessarily lead to higher wages.
Compensation and motivation. Research has shown that although most managers proclaim their commitment to performance-based pay, in practice they compensate employees for their efforts based on length of service and time spent on the job, rather than on the results achieved.
Theoretically, in organizations there should be an unambiguous connection between what and how an employee does and how much he receives for it. Pay and performance, pay and performance must be linked. As a results-oriented society, the underlying assumption is that full compensation for effort, including salary, should reasonably reflect each employee's contribution or, more specifically, how effectively he or she performed.
The main core element in all the work of a manager remains decision-making, determining what measures of influence should be developed, when, what, how and to whom to do it. If the subject and product of a manager’s work in general is information, the collection, processing and transmission of which he is busy, then the product of a manager’s work is command information received in the decision-making process.
The social concept of the concept of “decision” takes into account both a formal logical approach (any act of choice from a given number of alternatives according to a given criterion) and a psychological one (the stage of a volitional act, the appearance of mental transformations), and a decision is the process and result of choice (in the form of goals , methods of action, assessments, motives, attitudes, approaches).
Social decisions made by a manager are most often complex in nature and include economic, political, organizational, technical and purely social aspects, primarily related to the management of people. It is impossible to separate all components of a social decision from each other. However, in this context the emphasis will be on the social decision as a product of leadership activity. And the objects of social decision-making are taken as long-term tasks of personnel development related to the field of education, culture, social policy, as well as operational measures aimed at their implementation. The objects of social decisions are also the targeted leadership, education and training of individual workers and the group as a whole in the preparation and implementation of the production process.
A manager-leader, organizing himself and streamlining the system he heads, must focus on the measures taken by himself and his subordinates to ensure an increase in the quality of decisions and create conditions for their (decisions) accurate and quick implementation. He is obliged to keep these measures in his field of vision in order to use them if necessary.
To justify social decisions, a manager must know their most important features:
1) they are directly connected with a person and his personal interests and influence the behavior, way of thinking, and beliefs of subordinates;
2) contribute to the implementation of specific decisions in certain production situations, directing the initiative and activity of subordinates in the right direction; help strengthen the group and develop the individual;
3) must not contradict the fundamental rights of citizens guaranteed by the constitution. Those. their adoption must be preceded by analysis possible consequences;
4) decisions affecting the personal interests of subordinates deserve special attention;
5) decisions can be correct and erroneous (or so perceived by individual subordinates), as well as timely or delayed, effective or half-hearted, ineffective;
6) in the time continuum, decisions are located between current (tactical) and promising (strategic);
7) when making decisions, to formulate a problem, search for solution options, correctly assess the consequences of each option and select the best one, a variety of specific information is needed.
Particularly important information is:
On economic, political and other conditions of reproduction and use work force;
- about long-term goals, objective and subjective factors of reproduction and use of labor, market development;
- about cause-and-effect relationships, as well as the dependencies between goals and the means necessary to achieve them, and stochastic (depending on random factors) relationships as the basis for predicting the consequences of economic, political, technical, organizational and social events;
- about the patterns, conditions for the occurrence and manifestation of the consequences of physiological, social, psychological processes, the influence of aesthetic and pedagogical factors (the process of formation of consciousness; attitudes and attitudes towards work, processes of formation of group and moral norms, etc.);
- on the results of monitoring the effectiveness of ongoing activities.
Despite the fact that in modern theory In making social decisions there are more questions awaiting answers than resolved, however, even today it can provide practical assistance to managers. It would, however, be wrong to advise in all cases to adhere to the decision-making process proposed by the theory. The application of the theory's recommendations provides the manager with some advantages, but also has a number of disadvantages. Therefore, the optimal result is obtained when the manager is familiar with the recommendations and skillfully combines them with his own original actions that are adequate to the given situation.
The process of preparing and making management decisions consists of separate stages and actions of the manager.
First of all, identifying the problem, identifying possible solutions and their consequences. At this stage, it is necessary to meet very important requirements: timeliness and accuracy of problem formulation; the correctness of its description; formulating assumptions that the options under consideration must meet.
There are several ways to set assumptions (constraints): defining minimum goals that must be achieved; identifying resource needs; elimination of undesirable consequences; setting deadlines for implementing solution options; formulation of provisions subject to mandatory execution ( legislative acts, orders and directives higher authorities and so on.).
Assumptions have a significant impact on the choice of solution options.
In order to exclude those assumptions, the introduction of which may lead to the rejection of an acceptable option, when formulating them, the manager is recommended to:
Avoid unduly reducing the number of solution options by introducing too many assumptions;
- leave only assumptions that exclude obviously impossible solutions;
- accurately formulate assumptions so that they cannot be interpreted in two ways;
- do not introduce questionable assumptions; clearly formulate the requirements for the results of the implementation of each solution option.
The second stage after forming the problem and assumptions is assessing the consequences of the solution. When predicting consequences, it is advisable to consider the following.
In many problem situations, there is no clear relationship between a possible action (solution option) and the expected result.
In principle, three types of problem situations can be distinguished:
Deterministic, when each action corresponds to a single, precisely defined result. The task of developing a solution is posed as follows: choose action H, leading to result E. In the practice of social decisions, such cases are rare;
- stochastic, occurring in cases where the results of the same action can be different, and the occurrence of each of these results can be specified only with a certain probability PI, P2, РЗ...
To solve such problems, it is necessary to use the mathematical apparatus of probability theory and methods of mathematical statistics: strategic, when the same action corresponds to several different results, the probability of each of which is completely unknown.
These situations are the most widespread. They can only list the possible consequences. They are characterized by great uncertainty. Such situations often occur in organizations during the reproduction and use of labor due to the fact that expectations, interests, needs, motives, etc. people are difficult to quantify; there are no complete primary data of a social nature; analysis of all this data is difficult; one and the same decision option can give both favorable and undesirable consequences, etc.
Further, in many cases, the consequences cannot be accurately characterized, but are only taken into account as the probabilities of the occurrence of possible results of the decision (the effectiveness of material incentives, the impact on staff turnover, etc.).
The consequences of individual decision options are varied and extremely different qualitatively, which does not allow the use of a single quantitative measure to assess the overall effectiveness of a solution option.
At the third stage, criteria are developed with the help of which the level of preference of each solution option is assessed in terms of the goal to be achieved, the resources required for this and ways to achieve the goal.
To evaluate options for social solutions, the following groups of criteria can be used:
Goal criteria (for example, release of 100 employees);
- criteria for funds (resources) (for example, capital investments, costs of retraining, marketing costs, etc.);
- trajectory criteria (paths to achieving the goal);
- criteria that simultaneously take into account the goals and resource costs necessary to achieve them;
- criteria characterizing the ability to prevent the occurrence of undesirable consequences (for example, to solve safety problems).
Each solution option must be described by the same criteria. Actually we're talking about about comparing the possible consequences of each option and determining the optimal solution. This takes into account the risk factor: willingness to take risks, the scale of the risk, faith in one’s own capabilities, and a sense of responsibility.
Decision theory is a fairly extensive area of general control theory. By fragmentarily addressing some aspects of decision-making in the context of the product of the work of a manager-supervisor, we do not pretend to fully disclose the theory. With the increasing complexity of the nature, content and product of the work of a manager-supervisor, today the question arises: where is the role of a manager-supervisor evolving and what are the prospects in this process?
a) information
b) decision
c) power
d) obligation
84. What does professionalism of a manager mean?
a) knowledge of industry technology;
b) experience practical work in branch;
c) work on a permanent professional basis.
d) management training;
85. Who should a manager be first and foremost?
a) an economist.
b) a specialist in this industry;
c) management specialist;
d) sociologist;
d) psychologist;
86. Whose teaching became the main theoretical source modern concepts management?
a) M. Follett;
b) A. Fayol;
c) D. Getty;
d) F. Taylor;
87. What is it based on scientific organization labor?
a) using the experience of other managers;
b) on a clear division of labor.
c) on the use of research and best practices;
d) on strict adherence to discipline and regulations;
88. Which management function can be characterized as the process of ensuring consistency of actions of all parts of the management system:
a) motivation
b) control
c) coordination
d) planning
e) communication
f) organization
89. Management function, the task of which is quantitative and qualitative assessment and recording of work results:
a) control;
b) organization;
c) motivation;
d) planning.
e) communication
e) there is no correct answer
90. For what control function main task is the formation of the structure of the organization:
a) planning.
b) coordination;
c) motivation;
d) control;
e) organization;
e) there is no correct answer
91. What level of management of an organization should develop and implement a policy of interaction with the external environment?
a) all levels.
b) grassroots;
c) highest;
d) average;
92. Organizational structure- This
a) the art of managing intellectual, financial, raw materials, material resources
b) a type of human activity aimed at satisfying needs through exchange
c) a management system that determines the composition, interaction and subordination of its elements
d) production simulation method management decisions according to given rules in various production situations
93. Under what enterprise structure do firms focus on producing products for a specific group of customers?
a) Territorial.
b) Functional.
c) Design.
d) Market.
e) Innovative.
94. What is the main role of management in an organization?
a) In order technological processes activities of the organization.
b) In ensuring the actions of the elements of the organization's structure.
c) In maintaining a balance between the basic processes of the organization’s life and mobilization of its resources.
d) In developing control actions.
e) There is no correct answer
95. What problem solved by management is the main one?
a) Reducing the uncertainty of the organization’s position in its environment.
b) Ensuring intra-organizational processes.
c) Stabilization of the organization's structure.
d) Fostering the culture of the organization.
e) Definition of tasks and functions.
96. What is the main role of the organization in management?
a) In choosing a goal.
b) In creating conditions for control actions.
c) In the selection of control functions.
d) In streamlining management, in creating it as a system.
e) In removing uncertainty when solving problems.
97. An organizational structure that allows you to respond flexibly to changes in environment:
a) Divisional
b) Linear
c) Functional
d) Adaptive
98. What does a control system include in its elementary form?
a) principles, methods and functions of management;
b) subject, object of control and communication;
c) a set of control objects.
d) a set of management bodies;
a) evasion
b) smoothing
c) coercion
d) compromise
d) problem solving
e) there is no correct answer
100. What are socio-psychological management methods based on?
a) on the impact on consciousness and social conditions.
b) on the moral and psychological climate;
c) on legislative and regulations;
d) on the material interest of employees;
