The direct method of international trade is. Methods of international trade in the modern world economy. International Trade Methods

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Each trader's trading style is unique. A stock trader's trading style depends on his initial experience with money management and the importance of money in his life.

There are many trading styles, but this does not mean that traders are unable to go against their natural preferences, nor does it mean that choosing one trading style over another does not allow you to change it.

There are many ways to characterize a trading style. Some people define this by the markets they trade in or the currencies and commodities they trade. Others use a fundamental or technical division, some characterize it trading types, like spreads or options. The following are various styles and trading methods:

Scalping method

Trading on impulses

Technical method

Trading on intermarket spread

Arbitrage trading

Scalping method

The scalping method involves buying and selling a market instrument many times during the day with a small surplus that adds up to a huge profit. This method is not based on random profits, at the same time the possibility of losses is much less, so it is a fairly safe method.

Scalping traders increase profits on small movements and trade by analyzing one to five minute intraday charts, with positions lasting several minutes, and very small profits per trade. Open positions are never carried over to another day.

Trading on impulses

The basic idea of ​​momentum trading is that a rising market instrument will continue to rise, and a falling market instrument will continue to fall. Trading momentum requires some of the most general analytical skills.

The basic principle is that you will not buy a market instrument at the low, but sell at the high. If you don't buy an instrument until you see it start to rise, then it means you missed the opportunity to buy it at the very bottom. Likewise, if you don't sell the instrument until you see it going down, then you have missed your opportunity to sell it at the top.

The main technical indicators are dynamic indicators, which accumulate the net change in closing prices of an instrument over a series of specified time periods. The impulse line is constructed as a tandem line to the price chart and shows the zero axis. Positive values ​​indicate a supported upward movement, while negative values ​​indicate a potentially supported downward movement. The upward or downward direction of the indicator reflects the “strong movement” of the instrument.

When a trader is confident that he has identified a strong movement in a market instrument, he executes a trade. Missing the first one or two ticks of the move does not matter as long as he is ready to buy (or sell) during one of the following momentum periods.

Momentum trading is also fraught with dangers that can easily destroy even a well-disciplined and knowledgeable trader. With proper understanding of the technique, sufficient knowledge of the risks, and a willingness to accept the occasional loss, momentum trading can be attractive to aggressive traders who like to teeter on the edge.

Technical method

The technical method concerns all market instruments and is aimed at making quick profits. Technical traders evaluate a company's performance history (in the case of stocks), analyze charts and price movements, evaluate trading patterns in the past and, based on this, predict what may happen in the future and may even trade volume over a period of time.

The technical method involves studying price movement and trading volume to identify head and shoulder patterns and other formations. Other indicators include support and resistance levels, moving averages, etc.

The main disadvantages of the technical method

The main disadvantages of this trading method are:

• Too much dependence on the past behavior of a market instrument.
• Lots of technical indicators. There is no perfect indicator for every market instrument.

Trading on intermarket spread

Intermarket spread trading consists of a long position in one market instrument and a short position in another instrument, which are closely related. The logic behind an intermarket spread is that buying and selling two different instruments effectively exploits the correlation between them. Intermarket spread trading is considered very difficult to do as it requires trading on different exchanges. Mainly used for commodity futures contracts.

Arbitrage trading

Also known as “risk-free profit,” arbitrage trading is done by simultaneously buying and selling a market instrument to profit from the price differential. This trading system usually used on different exchanges or trading platforms. An investor can profit from differences in the prices of a market instrument on two different exchanges due to fluctuations in exchange rates.

Another way to trade arbitrage is when an investor wants to sell a market instrument at a certain price. He places a sell order at this price and simultaneously places a buy order at more high price. As a result, other investors may then buy the instrument at the first price, lured by the higher price offered in the second order. Once the first sell order is executed, the investor cancels his second buy order. Thus, he not only gets rid of his illiquid asset, but also makes good money from it.

Arbitrage trading is typically practiced by large institutional investors with multi-million dollar assets. Arbitrage trading is most effective in low-liquidity markets.

2. Speculative tactics
To make decisions in speculative trading tactics, fundamental and technical analyzes can be used, as well as their synthesis. In practice, the most common type of analysis is technical.
Speculative tactics or trading involves waiting and choosing the most favorable moment to open a position, opening a position, followed by closing the position with either a profit or a loss.

The main features of speculative tactics are:

• Opening both long and short positions, which allows you to make a profit both when the market value of shares rises and falls;
• A position can be opened for an amount exceeding equity capital through the use of credit resources;
• The position may be closed at a loss;
• The frequency of transactions can vary from one transaction per minute to one transaction per month;

Stop orders and money management methods are widely used in speculative trading tactics. This book is mainly devoted to this method of trading.

Trading styles

Depending on the style or nature of trading, it is divided into impulse, inertial, rebound trading, scalping (market making), swing and positional. Most of these styles are based on technical analysis.

Momentum Trading

This trading is based primarily on the use of news in trading. It often uses “empirical” trading strategies, less often strategies based on technical analysis. Anyone who wants to engage in momentum trading must be able to predict changes in the market based on news. The duration of transactions in this case can be from 2 minutes to several hours.

Inertial trading

This style of trading involves trading in the direction of a strong (major) trend. The position is opened in the direction of the prevailing price trend and held until there are signs of the end of this trend. In order to conduct such trading, you need to feel the market very subtly and be completely “immersed” in it. The transaction can last from several hours to several days or weeks.

Trading on bounces

This style of trading is based on the pattern of a price rebound after a rapid fall or rise. For example, the price of a stock fell very quickly by 2-3%; often after such a fall the price rebounds upward by 0.5%-1%. Or the share price has risen sharply by 2-4% - after this, as a rule, the price rebounds downwards by 0.5-1%. This trading requires perseverance, as well as fearlessness, because... you need to sell on the rise and buy on the fall. The operation period here is usually very short, because rebounds do not last long - from several minutes to several hours.

Position trading

This trading primarily uses fundamental analysis. Very often, the decision to buy/sell is based on some fundamental idea. After opening a position, it is held until the occurrence of an event associated with the implementation of the underlying fundamental idea. During the time the position is open, depending on new incoming fundamental information, the position may be reduced or increased. The period of holding a position can last from several months to several years.

Swing trading

The name of this trade comes from the word “swing” - scope. It is based on “catching” strong trend movements lasting 2-15 days or more. If, after price stagnation (stagnation), a breakthrough of an important price level or overcoming of the previous price maximum is planned in the market, then a position is opened at the point of the emerging breakthrough. Typically, this is accompanied by an increase in price volatility or a volatility breakout.

If after a breakthrough upward, the price continues to rise, then the profit is withdrawn (fixed) within a few days. The rebound from the stagnation level is usually quite strong. Thus, swing trading is aimed at waiting for certain market conditions, opening positions and quickly taking profits. To use it effectively, the trader requires high patience and the ability to tolerate uncertainty.

Scalping (market making)

This style of trading is based on spread trading. The trader sets two-sided quotes, buys at the “Bid” and sells at the “Ask”, taking the resulting difference for himself. This is a very delicate trade. Scalping requires not only excellent knowledge of your business, masterful mastery of technology, but also a certain character. A scalper is characterized by a quick reaction, the ability to react to every change on the trading screen, as well as ruthlessness when opening and closing positions. He can make 100 transactions or more per day.

Trading methods

Holding method

This trading method is rarely written or talked about.

It contains characteristic features of both the investment method and the speculative trading method. It differs from the investment method in that during the holding period, frequent purchase/sale transactions can be made with shares. The objectives of the retention method may be:

• Increasing the number of shares in a portfolio by selling one number of shares at a higher price and buying more shares at a lower price.
• Making a profit by performing purchase/sale transactions and maintaining the number of shares that was at the beginning of the retention period;

Imagine that you were given control of 5,000 shares of LUKOIL for one year. After a year, you should return the same 5,000 shares with a profit. To earn this profit, you will have to sell shares and then buy them back at a lower price. Agree, this is not traditional way trade. And in order to use it effectively, you must have certain abilities, experience and exclusive information. Therefore, this type of trading can be successfully used, mainly. insiders who have access to insider information or know how to obtain it, work with it effectively and conduct competent trading operations on the market. Those who engage in such trading are what I call block managers.

Averaging method

This method can be used both for investing and for speculative operations. With this method, the position is increased if the market goes “against you”.

Example 1. Let's say you bought shares for 10,000 rubles. at a price of 10 rubles. each, so you bought 1,000 shares. After some time, the shares fell in price and began to cost 9 rubles. a piece. You bought more shares for 10,000 rubles, but at 9 rubles, purchasing another 1,111 shares. However, the shares fell again and now cost 8 rubles. You buy them again for the same amount of 10,000 rubles, but now for 8 rubles, and receive another 1,250 shares. As a result, you purchased 3,361 shares for total amount 30,000 rub. We will ignore brokerage commissions and other expenses for now. The average price of shares you purchased for these transactions was RUB 8,926. . After some time, the price went up and reached the level of 9.6 rubles. If you sell your shares, you will receive RUB 32,265.6. , that is, your profit will be 2,265.6 rubles or 7.55% of 30,000 rubles.

Now imagine another option: you would have bought these shares with all your 30,000 rubles when they cost 10 rubles. a piece. After this, the shares, just as in the first case, would fall to 9 rubles, then to 8 rubles, and then rise to 9.6 rubles. If you sold shares at this level, you would receive a loss of RUB 1,200. or 4% from 30,000 rub.

It turns out that in the first option, you would receive a profit increase of 7.55%, and in the second option, a loss of 4%. Impressive!

We considered only one of the possible scenarios for the development of events.

Example 2. Let's see what would happen if after the first purchase of shares for 10 rubles. they did not fall, but would have grown to 12 rubles. For the first case, the profit would be 2,000 rubles. or 20% of the invested amount. For the second case, the profit would be 6,000 rubles. or 20% of the invested amount. As you can see, for the first and second cases the increase in profit is 20%, although in absolute units the profit in the second case is 3 times greater than in the first.
Now let's compare these two examples. In example 1, the first option gave a profit increase of 7.55%, the second brought a loss of 4%. In example 2, the percentage increase in profit in both options is equal, but the absolute profit in the second option is significantly higher.

Thus, from the point of view of risk reduction, the first option is more preferable than the second. And from the point of view of increasing absolute profit, the second option is more profitable than the first.

What's better: getting more high profits or reducing the risk of losses? This depends on the choice of the investor himself and his confidence. Not reckless confidence, but adequate, calculated, sensible confidence. If it is important for an investor to get maximum profit, and he is confident that after purchasing shares the price will only rise, he can immediately buy with all his funds. If an investor wants to minimize losses, is not chasing maximum profits and is not 100% sure that after his purchase the stock price will skyrocket, then it is better for him to stick to the first technique, that is, buy shares gradually, in parts.

This method can give good results in the following cases:

• when buying near the lower support level during lateral movement;
• when buying during a correction during an upward price movement;
• when buying in a bearish market near a support line or at an upward turning point;

Averaging can be used for both long and short operations.

The averaging method goes against some of the advice in trading literature that you should not add funds to a losing position. Of course, the averaging method can lead to ruin when trading with high leverage, especially in the futures and Forex markets, where leverage can be 1:10 or more.

But for speculative investment tactics with a small leverage, no more than 1:2, the averaging method can work perfectly. The risks of ruin are very low, because the likelihood that Russian shares will fall by 50% is extremely low. In the history of the Russian stock market, this happened only once - in 1998. A repetition of this event in the near future is unlikely.

The averaging method works well with sideways and upward price movements and does not work well with downward movements.

Pyramid building method

This method is very similar to the previous one, but here the position is increased when the market goes in your direction, that is, the profitable position is increased.

Let's look at it with examples.

Example A. You bought 20 shares at a price of 800 rubles. and spent 16,000 rubles on it. After your purchase, the shares rose to 850 rubles. You also bought 20 shares, spending 17,000 rubles. After some time, the shares rose in price again and began to cost 910 rubles. By purchasing 20 more shares at this price, you spent RUB 18,200. As a result, you became the owner of 60 shares with an average purchase price of 853.3 rubles. [(16,000+17,000+18,200)/60]. The price continued to rise to 925 rubles, and now, by selling shares at this price, you will make a profit of 4,300 rubles. [(925-853.3).60] or 8.4% of the invested amount.

If, after purchasing the first 20 shares at 800 rubles, the shares go down and you close the position with a stop loss, limiting losses at 2.5%, you will receive a loss of 400 rubles. or 2.5% of the invested amount.

Example B. You immediately bought 60 shares with all your money at a price of 800 rubles, paying 48,000 rubles. After which, as in option A, the shares rose to 925 rubles. You sell them for 925 rubles. and make a profit of 7,500 rubles. [(925-800).60] or 15.6% of the invested amount.
If, after purchasing 60 shares, their price drops to 780 rubles, and you sell them at a stop loss, in this case your losses will amount to 1,200 rubles. [(800-780).60] or 2.5% of the transaction amount.

Let's compare examples. It turns out that if the stock price increases, the profit in example B is 74% [(7500-4300)/4300] greater than in example A, but if the stock price decreases, the loss in example B is 200% [(1200-400)/ 400] more than in example A.

In example B you earned more than in example A, but you also received more losses. What if there are three or four losing trades in a row? Then the losses in example B will increase to 3,600 - 4,800 rubles, i.e. 3-4 times more than in example A. This will already be a significant loss for the account.
The point of this method is that when you make your first purchase, you kind of check yourself whether you are right or wrong. The first purchase is also called the “control purchase.” If you are right, then the market will go in the direction you want - up. If you are wrong, then the market will go against you - down. A control purchase allows you to reduce losses that you may incur due to the wrong choice of the moment or direction of entering the market. A control purchase error will result in significantly lower losses than a purchase with 100% of the funds. This method allows you to “catch” and “ride” the prevailing (main) price movement in the market. It can be used both for investing and for speculative operations.

The “pyramid building” method works especially well during upward price movements. And with sideways and downward price movements, it can cause losses.

The “Pyramid” was used by many famous traders, such as L. Williams, the famous “Turtles” and others.

I believe that opening a position with part of the funds is more reasonable, because in this case you have the opportunity to maneuver. If the stock price goes against you after your first purchase, but you are confident that the market will rise soon, then you can buy the stock at a lower price. If after the first purchase the stock price goes in your direction, then you can start building a “pyramid”.

The “averaging” and “pyramiding” methods are money management methods. Skillful use of these methods when investing and trading can significantly reduce the risk of capital loss and increase profitability trading operations, which ultimately increases the reliability of making a profit over a long period of trading.

conclusions

So, you have become acquainted with fundamental and technical analysis, learned about trading styles and methods.

This raises a number of questions that all novice investors ask themselves. First, which approach should you choose, fundamental or technical? I will say this: there is no approach that would allow you to make a profit in the market 100% of the time. Both technical and fundamental analysis can produce good profits in certain periods of time, but in other periods can bring losses. And neither technical nor fundamental analysis can be denied. You can become a master of technical analysis and achieve great success in trading. You can become a master of fundamental analysis and also achieve colossal results. You can apply a synthesis of technical and fundamental analyzes and become very successful. All paths are open to you. You can also go the fourth way: find other knowledge, skills, approaches. Please go for it. I believe that the best approach to trading is a combination of fundamental and technical analysis.

The second question that arises for inexperienced investors is: what style, method and tactics should you choose for yourself? Each of us has our own unique characteristics and predispositions, to something more and to something less. Read all the trading styles, methods and tactics again and try to intuitively choose the ones that are most suitable for you. To finally confirm your priorities in trading, you need to try all the selected styles, methods and tactics in practice. This may require a significant period of time, perhaps even several years.

To be successful in trading, sometimes it is enough to master one or two trading styles or methods, but the more techniques, styles and tactics you master, the more opportunities you will have to make a profit in the stock market.

From the book, 2007
Copyright 2007 Vadim Zverkov - when publishing a link is required

Weather conditions affect consumer demands and offers for the supply of organic, mineral and agricultural raw materials.

6. Redemption of obsolete products. It is most often used in the industrial sector, for example, when you need to buy passenger airliners, metal processing equipment, marine vessels, etc. When a buyer purchases new car or equipment, the cost of the old one is deducted from its cost. The method contains a developed markdown system, which takes into account the year of manufacture, technical condition and mileage.

7. Operations with customer-supplied raw materials - under the terms of such an agreement/contract, one of the parties works to export raw materials in order to subsequently import finished products/processed products. In turn, the second participant undertakes to process the received raw materials using its own capabilities. The number of additional deliveries of tolling raw materials acts as payment for the processing of raw materials for the company that provides its services.

8. Trade. This category is determined by a number of heterogeneous quality characteristics, seasonality of production and consumption, and limited storage time. This form trade is distinguished by a number of features that are associated with a large list of goods produced and the breadth of demand. By the way, demand is determined by the needs and tastes, traditions, level of employment and solvent characteristics of the population.

9. Trading in IP results, this includes:

inventions and patents;

industrial designs;

trademarks;

The objects of international transactions are the rights to use these products in production and commercial purposes. A license agreement is an agreement on the provision of practical use rights for a fee, the seller in such an agreement is the licensor, and the buyer is the licensee.

10. Trade in engineering and consulting services, which have a global impact on international trade in goods, because they additionally increase the competitiveness of these goods and, often without them, it is not possible to promote the product to the market.

In WTO terminology, services can be supplied (or sold) by four different ways(methods).

The first method: cross-border supply of services (from the territory of a WTO member country to the territory of another WTO member country). We are talking about when the selling and buying parties do not cross the border. Only service crosses the border.

Cross-border supply of services - this can be the transfer of postal information, the transfer of electronic information. This form is extremely relevant in the supply of postal, medical, tourism and other types of services. Today, in the issue of cross-border supply of services, there is a tendency to use new technologies that increase its relative importance. WTO and some others international organizations strive to approve certain standards, methods of electronic data interchange, compatibility technical requirements. They want to establish standards regarding the legal protection of the supply of services across borders. The terms “first”, “second”, “third”, “fourth” methods of supplying services in WTO terminology have an independent meaning and are used as special terms.

The second way: consumption of services across borders. A client from one country purchases and uses a service while in another country. Only the consumer (not the service or seller) crosses the border.

In other words, the consumer of the service goes to the territory of the country where the service producer is located (tourist trip abroad, training in foreign university, receiving medical care in foreign clinics, etc.).

Third method: commercial presence is one of the most popular methods. One WTO member supplies a service through a commercial presence in the territory of another WTO member. Then the supplier company crosses the border and establishes a representative office/subsidiary company, through which it provides the products of its labor to the consumer of a given state, located on its territory.

WTO statistics show that in order to ensure a commercial presence in the global services market, more than 50% of the influx of direct foreign investment. Commercial presence as a method of delivering services is costlier than all other methods.

Fourth way: moving individuals who provide the service, to the territory of the state where they provide it.

Individuals can provide services independently or while working for a foreign company (as specialists within the framework of an intra-company transfer), or after concluding service agreements signed by a foreign/national company. The free movement of individuals engaged in the supply of services is due to the formation of an open and free from obstacles global market work force. However, no country currently has such a situation.

To liberalize this method, within the WTO, this came down to horizontal obligations to expand the temporary movement of management personnel of firms and workers from high level qualifications. Some states have adopted specific obligations for certain service sectors, limiting them to significant regulations.

The main regulation is that a foreign specialist engaged in the supply of services can obtain permission to enter the country for the purpose of work only if there is a need for labor in this state. Individuals from abroad are limited in their ability to sell their services while abroad because their professional qualifications are not always recognized.

Now this nuance has grown into a global contradiction between developed and developing countries, although states are striving to come to some kind of consensus. In developing countries there is a surplus of labor, primarily in the field of medicine, computer and professional services, in the field of management. This way they could supply services while working abroad. But developed countries impose restrictions on the opportunities for individuals from developing countries to work in their services market. The main problem of the negotiations is to find a solution to resolve the entire range of issues that determine the status of individuals who provide services abroad.

To learn international trading practices, organizations need a large amount of market information, which they often do not have. Therefore, it is worth turning to professionals. We invite you to familiarize yourself with the reports on the analysis of import and export supplies, compiled by specialists of the information and analytical company “VVS” based on customs statistics.

Our company is one of those that stood at the origins of the business of processing and adapting market statistics collected by federal departments. Quality in our business is, first of all, the accuracy and completeness of information. When making important strategic decisions, it is necessary to rely only on reliable statistical information. But how can you be sure that this information is reliable? You can check this! And we will provide you with this opportunity.

The method of international trade is a method of carrying out a trade exchange (trade operation or trade transaction) between its participants who are residents of both different (direct method) and one (indirect and cooperative methods) countries. Methods of international trade include:

• 1. Direct method.
• 2. Indirect method.
• 3. Cooperative method.
• 4. Countertrade.
• 5. Institutional method.
• 6. Electronic method.
• 1. The direct method characterizes the implementation of trade exchanges directly between residents of different countries. Under the terms of such a transaction, the seller (resident of one country) undertakes to transfer the goods into the ownership of the buyer (resident of another country) within the terms specified in the contract and on the conditions specified therein, and the buyer, in turn, undertakes to accept this product and pay for it agreed in the contract amount of money. Distinctive feature The direct method of international trade is the fact that the focal company is directly involved in all the main and (usually part of) supporting operations related to the preparation, conclusion, execution and maintenance of international sales contracts, as well as other agreements that form the subject of international commercial business when counterparties (partners) are residents of different countries.

It is most typical for such forms of international trade as:

• c) international auctions, where the objects of trade are finished products, raw materials and semi-finished products;
• d) international tenders, where comprehensive engineering services are provided;
• e) operational leasing of machinery and equipment, as well as scientific and technical knowledge and intellectual property.
• 2. The use of the indirect method is associated with the participation of an intermediary in the trade exchange. This method is typical for such forms of international trade as:
  • a) import/re-import: finished products; machinery and equipment; raw materials and semi-finished products; tourist services.
  • b) export/re-export: finished products; machinery and equipment; raw materials and semi-finished products; tourist services.
  • d) financial leasing of machinery and equipment, as well as scientific and technical knowledge and intellectual property.
• 3. The cooperative method is associated with the implementation of an international trade transaction through a special intermediary, which is a certain organizational form of business created by a group of initiators of this transaction, the implementation of which by each member of this group individually seems too risky, impossible and/or economically ineffective. The use of this method is reflected in the activities of freight forwarding companies, which undertake most of the export formalities and deliver the goods to the buyer. Other forms of the cooperative method are:
• 1) Piggybacking, in which a certain manufacturing company uses a distribution channel created by another experienced company to enter a foreign market. Currently, this practice is being transformed into the creation of strategic business alliances.
• 2) An export consortium, which is a temporary union of small and medium-sized companies that retain their legal independence within its framework, to organize exports.
• 3) Cartel as an association of exporters, providing for certain obligations on a number of issues (participant quota, pricing, credit conditions for buyers, etc.).

The cooperative method is characteristic of such forms of international trade as:

• a) import/re-import: finished products; machinery and equipment; raw materials and semi-finished products; tourist services.
• b) export/re-export: finished products; machinery and equipment; raw materials and semi-finished products; tourist services.
• c) international exchanges, where the objects of trade are raw materials;
• d) international auctions, where the objects of trade are finished products, raw materials and semi-finished products;
• e) international tenders, where comprehensive engineering services are provided;
• f) operational leasing of machinery and equipment, as well as scientific and technical knowledge and intellectual property;
• g) financial leasing of machinery and equipment, as well as scientific and technical knowledge and intellectual property.
• 4. Countertrade can be considered as trade transactions, the terms of which provide for counter-obligations of sellers to purchase goods from buyers for part or the full cost of the goods supplied. In this case, the obligations of sellers to buy goods and counter obligations of buyers are fixed in an agreement or contract. The following forms of countertrade can be distinguished:
• 1) Pure barter, considered as an exchange of goods agreed between the parties; the transaction is short-term.
• 2) Clearing agreement providing for mutual offset of counterclaims and obligations. Accordingly, groups of goods are involved on both sides; third parties are not involved in the transaction.
• 3) Switch as a form of clearing agreement, in which rights to debts arising as a result of a unilaterally conducted commodity exchange transaction are sold to a third party. Accordingly, as a rule, there are no monetary settlements, the transaction is of a long-term nature, groups of goods are involved on both sides, and third parties take part in settling the relationship;
• 4) Offset (gentlemen's agreement), which does not contain the exporter's legally binding obligations in relation to the counterpurchase, although it presupposes the exporter's agreement, in order to compensate for the cost of the contract, to purchase goods from the importer, but in a legally unspecified quantity. Offset involves monetary settlements, and mutual obligations are not limited to only bilateral purchases of goods.
• 5) Counter-purchase, which can be characterized as a counter-supply of goods within a specified period, carried out on the basis of a complicated international sales contract or a specified contract and counter or advance purchase agreements attached to it. Accordingly, cash payments are provided, the exporter is obliged to purchase goods from the importer, and the origin of the goods purchased from the importer is not related to the use of the goods purchased from the exporter.
• 6) Buyback, which stipulates that equipment, components, and raw materials supplied by the exporter will be included in manufacturing process, on the results of which the settlement with the importer depends. Accordingly, cash payments are provided, the exporter is obliged to purchase from the importer goods that are produced using goods purchased in turn from the exporter. Countertrade characteristic of such forms of international trade as:
  • a) import/re-import: finished products; machinery and equipment; raw materials and semi-finished products; tourist services.
  • b) export/re-export: finished products; machinery and equipment; raw materials and semi-finished products; tourist services.
  • c) operational leasing of machinery and equipment, as well as scientific and technical knowledge and intellectual property.
• 5. The institutional method involves conducting trading operations through special institutes(exchanges, auctions, trades). The use of this method serves a single purpose - to establish a fair or recognized by all potential sellers and buyers price-quality ratio of the product. The institutional method is characteristic of such forms of international trade as: a. international exchanges, where the object of trade is raw materials; 6. international auctions, where the objects of trade are finished products, raw materials and semi-finished products; V. international tenders, where the object of trade is complex engineering services; d. operational leasing associated with the provision of comprehensive engineering services.
• 6. The emergence and subsequent spread of the electronic method (or e-commerce) is associated with the implementation of trade within the World Wide Web. Its advantages include significant savings in time and money compared to traditional methods at the stage of pre-contract work and during contract support, as well as the possibility of global access to potential markets, independent of such weighty “pre-virtual” arguments as the size of the international company and geographic location. the location of its headquarters. The electronic method is typical for such forms of international trade as: a. international exchanges, where the object of trade is raw materials; b. international auctions, where the objects of trade are finished products, raw materials and semi-finished products.

TO modern methods International trade includes: operations with customer-supplied raw materials and repurchase of used equipment.

Operations with customer-supplied raw materials in international practice called tolling. Tolling is the processing of customer-supplied raw materials of Russian and imported origin in compliance with the prescribed customs regime for the movement of goods. External tolling is the processing of foreign customer-supplied raw materials by Russian enterprises with the subsequent export of finished products. Internal tolling is the purchase of customer-supplied raw materials by foreign companies in Russia for processing at Russian enterprises and subsequent export. They have the characteristics of countertrade and are balanced and pre-priced.

Buying back used equipment is an opportunity for an exporter to produce more competitive products, and for an importer it is an opportunity to get rid of obsolete equipment or sell it at residual value. As a rule, it is used in the sale of passenger cars and trucks, computer and copy equipment, sea ​​vessels, agricultural machinery, metalworking and woodworking equipment.

To summarize, we can generalize: international trade is a global mechanism that includes almost all types of international division of labor, ensuring large-scale trade in a variety of goods and services, operating through the use of many methods. Thus, we can say that international trade is the most important component of world economic relations, the basis on which a unified international economic system rests.

The method of international trade is a method of carrying out a trade exchange (trade operation or commercial transaction) between its participants. Methods of international trade include:

Direct method;

Indirect method;

Cooperative method;

Countertrade;

Institutional method;

Electronic method.

I. The direct method characterizes the implementation of trade exchanges directly between residents of different countries. It is most typical for such forms of international trade as:

a) import/re-import:

Finished products;

Machinery and equipment;

Raw materials and semi-finished products;

b) export/re-export:

Finished products;

Machinery and equipment;

Raw materials and semi-finished products;

Tourist services;

c) international auctions, where the objects of trade are finished products, raw materials and semi-finished products;

d) international tenders, where comprehensive engineering services are provided;

e) operational leasing of machinery and equipment, as well as scientific and technical knowledge and intellectual property.

II. The use of the indirect method is associated with the participation of an intermediary in the trade exchange. This method is typical for such forms of international trade as:

a) import/re-import:

Finished products;

Machinery and equipment;

Raw materials and semi-finished products;

Tourist services (recreational, scientific, educational, family, extreme, pilgrimage, environmental, shopping);

b) export/re-export:

Finished products;

Machinery and equipment;

Raw materials and semi-finished products;

Tourist services;

d) financial leasing of machinery and equipment, as well as scientific and technical knowledge and intellectual property.

III. The cooperative method is associated with the implementation of an international trade transaction through a special intermediary, which is a certain organizational form of business created by a group of initiators of this transaction, the completion of which by each member of this group individually seems too risky, impossible or unprofitable.

The use of this method is reflected in the activities of freight forwarding companies, which undertake most of the export formalities and deliver the goods to the buyer.

Other forms of the cooperative method are:

1. Piggybacking, in which a certain manufacturing company uses a distribution channel created by another experienced company to enter a foreign market. Currently, this practice is being transformed into the creation of strategic business alliances.

2. Export consortium, which is a temporary union of small and medium-sized companies that retain their legal independence within its framework to organize exports.

3. Cartel as an association of exporters, providing for certain obligations on a number of issues (participant quota, pricing, buyer credit conditions, etc.).

The cooperative method is characteristic of such forms of international trade as:

a) import/re-import:

Finished products;

Machinery and equipment;

Raw materials and semi-finished products;

Tourist services (recreational, scientific, educational, family, extreme, pilgrimage, environmental, shopping);

b) export/re-export:

Finished products;

Machinery and equipment;

Raw materials and semi-finished products;

Tourist services;

c) international exchanges, where the objects of trade are raw materials;

d) international auctions, where the objects of trade are finished products, raw materials and semi-finished products;

e) international tenders, where comprehensive engineering services are provided;

f) operational leasing of machinery and equipment, as well as scientific and technical knowledge and intellectual property;

g) financial leasing of machinery and equipment, as well as scientific and technical knowledge and intellectual property.

IV. Countertrade can be considered as trade transactions, the terms of which provide for reciprocal obligations of sellers to purchase goods from buyers for part or the full cost of the goods supplied. In this case, the obligations of sellers to buy goods and counter obligations of buyers are fixed in an agreement or contract.

The following forms of countertrade can be distinguished:

1. Pure barter, considered as an exchange of shipments of goods agreed upon between the parties; the transaction is short-term.

2. Clearing agreement, providing for mutual offset of counterclaims and obligations. Accordingly, groups of goods are involved on both sides; third parties are not involved in the transaction.

3. Switch as a form of clearing agreement in which rights to debts resulting from a unilaterally conducted commodity exchange transaction are sold to a third party. Accordingly, as a rule, there are no monetary settlements, the transaction is long-term, groups of goods are involved on both sides, and third parties take part in settling the relationship.

4. Offset (gentlemen's agreements), which does not contain the exporter’s legally binding obligations in relation to the counterpurchase, although it presupposes the exporter’s agreement, in order to compensate for the cost of the contract being concluded, to purchase goods from the importer, but in a legally unspecified quantity. Offset involves monetary settlements, and mutual obligations are not limited to only bilateral purchases of goods.

5. Counterpurchase, which can be characterized as a counter supply of goods within a specified period, carried out on the basis of a complicated international sales contract or a specified contract and counter or advance purchase agreements attached to it. Accordingly, cash payments are provided, the exporter is obliged to purchase goods from the importer, and the origin of the goods purchased from the importer is not related to the use of the goods purchased from the exporter.

6. Bayback, within the framework of which it is provided that the equipment, components, and raw materials supplied by the exporter will be included in the production process, the results of which determine the settlement with the importer. Accordingly, cash payments are provided, the exporter is obliged to purchase from the importer goods that are produced using goods purchased in turn from the exporter.

Countertrade is typical for such forms of international trade as:

a) import/re-import:

Finished products;

Machinery and equipment;

Raw materials and semi-finished products;

Tourist services (recreational, scientific, educational, family, extreme, pilgrimage, environmental, shopping);

b) export/re-export:

Finished products;

Machinery and equipment;

Raw materials and semi-finished products;

Tourist services;

c) operational leasing of machinery and equipment, as well as scientific and technical knowledge and intellectual property.

V. The institutional method involves conducting trading operations through special institutions (exchanges, auctions, trades).

The use of this method serves a single purpose - to establish a fair or recognized by all potential sellers and buyers price-quality ratio of the product.

The institutional method is characteristic of such forms of international trade as:

b) international auctions, where the objects of trade are finished products, raw materials and semi-finished products;

c) international tenders, where the object of trade is complex engineering services;

d) operational leasing associated with the provision of comprehensive engineering services.

VI. The emergence and subsequent spread of the electronic method is associated with trade on the World Wide Web. Its advantages include significant savings in time and money compared to traditional methods at the stage of pre-contract work and during contract support, as well as the possibility of global access to potential markets, independent of such weighty “pre-virtual” arguments as the size of the international company and geographic location. the location of its headquarters.

The electronic method is typical for such forms of international trade as:

a) international exchanges where the object of trade is raw materials;

b) international auctions, where the objects of trade are finished products, raw materials and semi-finished products.

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