In what year did the first typewriter appear? The concept of offset printing. Touching love story

A printing or typewriter - once upon a time this thing was the property of those who are usually called people of intellectual professions: scientists, writers, journalists. The brisk knocking of the keys could also be heard in the reception rooms of high-ranking bosses, where a charming secretary typist sat at the table next to the typewriter...

Now it’s a different time and typewriters are almost a thing of the past; they have been replaced by personal computers that have preserved typewriter just the keyboard. But maybe if there were no typewriter there would not have been a computer? By the way, the typewriter also has its own holiday - Typewriter Day, and it is celebrated on March 1st.

Old typewriter from the early 20th century

Legends and historical sources tell us that the first typewriter was developed three hundred years ago in 1714 by Henry Mill, and he even received a patent for the invention from the Queen of England herself. But the image of this machine has not been preserved.

A real, working machine was first introduced to the world by an Italian named Terry Pellegrino in 1808. His writing machine was made for his blind friend, Countess Caroline Fantoni de Fivisono, who was able to communicate with the world by writing correspondence with her friends and loved ones on a typewriter.

Old typewriters with "unusual" keyboard layouts

The idea of ​​​​creating an ideal and convenient typewriter captured the minds of inventors, and over time, various modifications of this writing device began to appear in the world.

In 1863, the ancestor of all modern printing machines finally appeared: Americans Christopher Sholes and Samuel Soule - former typographers - first came up with a device for numbering pages in account books, and then, according to the principle, created a workable machine, typing words.

A patent for the invention was received in 1868. The first version of their machine had two rows of keys with numbers and an alphabetical arrangement of letters from A to Z (there were no lowercase letters, only capital ones; there were also no numbers 1 and 0 - the letters I and O were used instead), but this option turned out to be inconvenient . Why?

There is a legend according to which, when quickly sequentially pressing letters located next to each other, the hammers with the letters got stuck, forcing them to stop work and clear out the jam with their hands. Scholes then came up with the QWERTY keyboard, a keyboard that forced typists to work slower.

According to another legend, Sholes' brother analyzed the compatibility of letters in English and proposed a variant in which the most frequently occurring letters were spaced as far apart as possible, which made it possible to avoid sticking when printing.

Typewriters with a familiar keyboard layout

Various types of machines over a period of time gradually became more practical for daily use. There were also machines with a different keyboard layout, but... The classic Underwood Typewriter, which appeared in 1895, was able to achieve dominance at the beginning of the 20th century, and most manufacturers began to make their typewriters in the same style.

The principle of operation of one of the modifications of typewriters Williams Typewriter demonstration

Old postcard - girl with a typewriter

There are all kinds of typewriters and never have been. Printing machines for special purposes: shorthand, accounting, for writing formulas, for the blind and others.

Typewriters for various fields of activity

There was even an alternative - typewriters without... keyboards. These are so-called index typewriters: one hand operates a pointer that selects the desired letter in the index, and the other hand presses a lever to print the letter onto the paper.

Such machines were very cheap compared to regular ones and were in demand among housewives, travelers, graphomaniacs, and even children.

Index typewriters

How the index typewriter works The Mignon Index Typewriter – 1905

And a little about the Russian keyboard layout - YTSUKEN... the history of its appearance is as follows: alas, it was invented in America at the end of the 19th century. At that time, all companies produced the machine with only one layout option - YIUKEN.

This is not a typo - the familiar YTSUKEN appeared only after the reform of the Russian language, as a result of which “yat” and “I” disappeared from the alphabet. So we now have on the computer everything that was invented before us for centuries... We ourselves typewriters have become an antique value and can well be perceived as works of art.

Inventor: Christopher Lettham Sholes and Samuel Soulle
A country: USA
Time of invention: 1868

The machine revolution in the 70s of the 19th century even affected such a seemingly remote area from technology as writing. From time immemorial, people used only their own hands to draw written characters. With the invention of the typewriter, he could entrust this operation to a mechanism. Instead of writing out letters, now it was enough to hit the desired key.

The advent of the typewriter led to significant changes in many areas of human activity and raised the high level business culture. The speed and quality of office work have increased several times.

In fact, everyone can learn to write, but not everyone can write quickly and at the same time clearly, legibly and beautifully.

Meanwhile, the spread of written communications between people, the increase in the number of business papers and commercial correspondence requiring special clarity of the manuscript, as well as many other reasons (for example, the desire to speed up the work of typesetters, who, when typing text from a blind manuscript, often worked slowly and made mistakes) caused the desire to invent a typesetting machine that would be accessible to everyone and would allow one or more copies of an accurate and quickly readable manuscript to be immediately and quickly received.

Several models of typewriters appeared in the 18th century, but they worked so slowly that they could not be of practical use. One of the first known typewriters was assembled in 1833 by the Frenchman Progrin. His typograph consisted of 88 levers connected to letter and number stamps. The levers were located in a circle and moved along and across a sheet of paper on a special slide. It is clear that working on such a machine was difficult and inconvenient.

In 1843, Charles Thurbert took out a patent for a typewriter he invented for the blind. It was he who came up with the very fruitful idea of ​​lever transmission of the movement of letters, which was later used in all typewriters. There were other designs of printing devices. However, the typewriter in the modern sense of the word appeared only thirty years later, and not in Europe, but in America.

In 1867, two American printers, Lettam Scholes and Samuel Sulle, invented a number printing machine that could be used to number pages and also to print numbers and series of bank notes. One of Sholes' acquaintances, interested in the new device, suggested that, using the principle of this simple typewriter, they create a typewriter that, instead of signs and numbers, could print letters and words. This idea fascinated Sholes. At first he continued to work with Sulle.

In the summer, the first single-letter typewriter was ready. It consisted of an old telegraph key in the form of a key, a glass plate and some other parts. Sholes placed a piece of carbon tape and a thin sheet of white paper on the record, then, moving the paper with one hand, he pressed the telegraph key with the other, on which was the letter “B” cut out of brass. The result was an impression on paper.

In the autumn of the same year, the first example of a multi-letter typewriter was created. It worked so well that it wrote quickly and clearly, but it was still very inconvenient for practical use, since it had a flat keyboard (like a piano) and typed only in capital letters. In 1868, a patent was received for this machine, after which Sulle lost interest in it.

But Sholes decided at all costs to create a model of the machine that could be put into production. One of his acquaintances, Deximore, provided him with financial support. Sholes threw himself into his work. Over the next five years, he produced about 30 models of cars, each one better than the previous one, but still far from perfect.

Only in 1873 was a sufficiently reliable and convenient model of a typewriter created, which Sholes offered to the famous Remington factory, which produced weapons and agricultural machines. In 1874, the first hundred cars were already put on sale. The famous American writer Mark Twain was one of its first buyers. It was on it that he imprinted his “Tom Sawyer”. This may have been the first classical work written at a typewriter.

However, the overall situation remained not entirely satisfactory. It took another eight years to accustom the public to this amazing technical innovation. Many cars from the first series were returned to stores, some with damaged parts. For a long time, typewriters were viewed as a luxury item. But gradually the situation changed. Business offices, firms and banks were the first to appreciate the new invention.

Already in 1876, mass production of typewriters was launched. The first Remingtons, although they had the same principle of operation as modern typewriters, still differed in some ways. specific features. For example, the text in them was printed under the roller and was not visible. To look at the work, it was necessary to lift the cart, which was located on hinges for this purpose. It is clear that this was not entirely convenient.

Meanwhile, Scholes' example inspired other inventors. In 1890, Franz Wagner received a patent for a typewriter with horizontal lying letter levers and with the font visible when printing. He sold the rights to its production to manufacturer John Underwood. This machine turned out to be so convenient that it soon became in mass demand, and Underwood made a huge fortune from it. The inventor himself, however, was not so lucky and died in poverty.

Since 1908, Remington also began producing machines with visible type. After the Underwood, typewriters from other companies appeared, including several European designs. But in the first decades of its existence, this invention was more in line with the American way of life. At least until the beginning of the 20th century, the lion's share of all cars produced and purchased came from the United States. The operating principle of all these machines is general outline was the same.

There is probably no person who has not seen a typewriter at work. Therefore, there is no need to describe its action and structure in detail. The main parts of the machine were: a keyboard with a lever system, a carriage with paper rollers and a cast-iron mechanism frame mounted on wooden board. The carriage (a movable cart carrying paper) carried a solid rubber cylinder and a wooden roller parallel to it, between which it passed.

When the machine was running, the carriage automatically moved from right to left after each letter was printed. When you press a certain key, the lever associated with it rises, which has a steel carved letter on it. This letter struck a rubber roller along which the paper moved. All the letters hit the same point, as they were located along the generatrix of the cylinder.

A special tape impregnated with black or colored paint automatically passed between the paper and the letter. The steel letter, striking the tape, imprinted its impression on the paper. Two letters were placed on each lever. In order to print the second one, it was necessary to move the rubber cylinder by pressing a special key (move it to the upper case).

When a key was struck, not only did the lever connected to it move, but by means of a gear-conical engagement, a reel of tape was rotated through a certain angle, which was unwinded from one of them and wound onto the other, so that the next letter hit another place on the tape. When the entire tape passed under the font, a special lever changed the direction of its movement, and the reels began to rotate in the opposite direction. Simultaneously with the movement of the tape, an elastic rubber roller, carried by the carriage and supporting the paper, moved towards it under the action of a spring. The reverse movement of the carriage was done by hand.

Thus, each press of a key caused three actions of the typewriter at once: 1) the letter left an imprint on the paper; 2) the carriage moved one step to the left; 3) the tape moved. All this was achieved through the interaction of various parts of the typewriter, the main ones being the printing mechanism, the stepper mechanism and the tape mechanism.

IN pre-revolutionary Russia typewriters were not produced, but were used. However, due to the peculiarities of pre-revolutionary spelling, the placement of the keys was somewhat different from the current one. The first typewriter in our country was produced in 1928 in Kazan, it was called “Yanalif”.

At a later time, the most common domestic brands of typewriters in the USSR were “Ukraine” (stationery) and “Moskva” (portable). Of the foreign ones, “Optima” (GDR, stationery) and “Consul” (Czechoslovakia, portable) were quite widely distributed. However, in terms of prevalence, typewriters were significantly inferior to computers.

Over its more than 100-year history, typewriters have seen many talented works; they have been directly involved in the creation of thousands of masterpieces and bestsellers around the world. For many decades, the typewriter was considered the main working tool of writers, philosophers and journalists.

The history of the creation of a typewriter began in 1714, when a patent was issued for a certain typewriter. It was invented by plumber Henry Mill from England, but, unfortunately, there is no exact information about the mechanism and photos of the unit itself.

It took almost a whole century for the first, and importantly, working typewriter to be created in 1808. The creator and developer was Pellegrino Turi, who came up with it for a friend of Countess Carolina Fantoni da Fivizzono. Caroline was blind, and with the help of such a device she could correspond with her relatives. Caroline Fantoni da Fivisono's letters have survived to this day, but the writing apparatus has not. It is known that paper stained with soot (similar to carbon paper) was used for printing. By the way, the idea of ​​“copying” multiple documents was not developed by Turi. In 1806, the Englishman Ralph Wedgwood patented “coal paper”. For another two centuries, it was actively used in office work to quickly obtain copies.

But let's return to printing presses.

The next attempt to create a unit suitable for “fast printing” was in Russia, when M.I. Alisov developed a typesetting machine. Mikhail Ivanovich wanted to simplify and facilitate the procedure for rewriting manuscripts and originals, and he succeeded. The car performed well. True, the high cost of the product put an end to the history of the development of this product.

September 1867 became a landmark date for all writing units in the world.

They say that a talented person is talented in everything. Christopher Latham Sholes was a writer, journalist and, of course, inventor. In 1867, he applied for a patent for the production of his “brainchild” - a printing machine. It took the “bureaucratic machine” months to make a decision, but nevertheless, in 1868, Christopher received the coveted confirmation. Glidden and Soule were listed as co-authors of the development.

Six years later, the first batch of writing units under the Sholes & Glidden Type Writer brand entered the American market. It should be noted that appearance was very different from what we are used to seeing: the keyboard consisted of two rows of letters, placed according to an alphabetical hierarchy. By the way, there were no numbers 1 and 0, their role was played by “I” and “O”. The first unit had plenty of disadvantages. This is an inconvenient arrangement of letters, and the inability to work quickly, because the hammers on which the stamps with letters are attached did not have time to take their original position and got confused with each other.

By the way, “The Adventures of Tom Sawyer” by Mark Twain, published in 1876, was printed on just such a typewriter with “tangling hammers.” One can envy the author's patience.

There were several ways to solve the problem of hammers getting tangled: work slower (this did not suit the writers) or change the design of the machine. But Christopher Sholes used a third method: he changed the order of the letters. The fact is that the hammers were installed on an arc, and most often the letters placed in the “neighborhood” jammed. And then, the developer decided to fix them so that the letters that participate in the formation of stable combinations are further away from each other. By placing the letters in the correct order, the updated keyboard began with letters Q,W, E, R, T, Y.

The QWERTY layout or universal keyboard has become popular all over the world.

Did you know that L.N. Tolstoy’s favorite writing assistant, without which it was impossible to imagine the interior of his office, was the reliable Remington, and his colleague in the writing workshop V.V. Mayakovsky was an ardent fan of Underwood.

In 1877, Sholes sold the rights to manufacture the typewriter to the Remington arms company. And that was the beginning new chapter in the history of the creation of the typewriter. Remington engineers supplemented the “source code” with the ability to print uppercase and lowercase letters (in the original version, only uppercase letters were written). To do this, we added the “Shift” key.

Sholes' success inspired other inventors. In 1895, Franz Wagner received a patent for the manufacture of a machine with horizontally located levers that strike the paper roller from the front. The main difference, and at the same time advantage, from the invention of 1867 was that the printed text was visible during operation. Wagner then sold the rights to manufacture his typewriter to John Underwood. The design was very convenient to use, and very soon new owner made a fortune from it.

In addition to Remingtons and Underwoods, dozens of other companies produced their own versions of other typewriters. From 1890-1920, these devices were constantly modernized and improved. Among the machines of this period, two main types can be distinguished: with a single letter carrier and with a lever device. The convenience of the first ones was that the printed text could be seen immediately, but at the same time they were very slow in operation and had poor penetrating ability. The advantage of the latter was speed.

The last typewriter factory in India was closed in April 2011. This means that the era of this writing tool is officially over.

A printing or typewriter - once upon a time this thing was the property of those who are usually called people of intellectual professions: scientists, writers, journalists. The brisk knocking of the keys could also be heard in the reception rooms of high-ranking bosses, where a charming secretary typist sat at the table next to the typewriter...

Now it’s a different time and typewriters are almost a thing of the past; they have been replaced by personal computers, which have retained only the keyboard from the typewriter. But maybe if there were no typewriter there would not have been a computer? By the way, the typewriter also has its own holiday - Typewriter Day, and it is celebrated on March 1st.

Old typewriter from the early 20th century

Legends and historical sources tell us that the first typewriter was developed three hundred years ago in 1714 by Henry Mill, and he even received a patent for the invention from the Queen of England herself. But the image of this machine has not been preserved.

A real, working machine was first introduced to the world by an Italian named Terry Pellegrino in 1808. His writing machine was made for his blind friend, Countess Caroline Fantoni de Fivisono, who was able to communicate with the world by writing correspondence with her friends and loved ones on a typewriter.

Old typewriters with "unusual" keyboard layouts

The idea of ​​​​creating an ideal and convenient typewriter captured the minds of inventors, and over time, various modifications of this writing device began to appear in the world.

In 1863, the ancestor of all modern printing machines finally appeared: Americans Christopher Sholes and Samuel Soule - former typographers - first came up with a device for numbering pages in account books, and then, according to the principle, created a workable machine, typing words.

A patent for the invention was received in 1868. The first version of their machine had two rows of keys with numbers and an alphabetical arrangement of letters from A to Z (there were no lowercase letters, only capital ones; there were also no numbers 1 and 0 - the letters I and O were used instead), but this option turned out to be inconvenient . Why?

There is a legend according to which, when quickly sequentially pressing letters located next to each other, the hammers with the letters got stuck, forcing them to stop work and clear out the jam with their hands. Scholes then came up with the QWERTY keyboard, a keyboard that forced typists to work slower.

According to another legend, Sholes' brother analyzed the compatibility of letters in English and proposed a variant in which the most frequently occurring letters were spaced as far apart as possible, which made it possible to avoid sticking when printing.

Typewriters with a familiar keyboard layout

Various types of machines over a period of time gradually became more practical for daily use. There were also machines with a different keyboard layout, but... The classic Underwood Typewriter, which appeared in 1895, was able to achieve dominance at the beginning of the 20th century, and most manufacturers began to make their typewriters in the same style.

The principle of operation of one of the modifications of typewriters Williams Typewriter demonstration

Old postcard - girl with a typewriter

There are all kinds of typewriters and never have been. Printing machines for special purposes: shorthand, accounting, for writing formulas, for the blind and others.

Typewriters for various fields of activity

There was even an alternative - typewriters without... keyboards. These are so-called index typewriters: one hand operates a pointer that selects the desired letter in the index, and the other hand presses a lever to print the letter onto the paper.

Such machines were very cheap compared to regular ones and were in demand among housewives, travelers, graphomaniacs, and even children.

Index typewriters

How the index typewriter works The Mignon Index Typewriter – 1905

And a little about the Russian keyboard layout - YTSUKEN... the history of its appearance is as follows: alas, it was invented in America at the end of the 19th century. At that time, all companies produced the machine with only one layout option - YIUKEN.

This is not a typo - the familiar YTSUKEN appeared only after the reform of the Russian language, as a result of which “yat” and “I” disappeared from the alphabet. So we now have on our computer everything that was invented for centuries before us... The typewriters themselves have become an antique value and can be completely perceived as works of art.

How would you behave in the place of the old king, whose heirs began to die one after another? Would you be more accommodating at the negotiating table? The issue is complex, and everyone solves it in their own way. The "Sun King" entered into negotiations. In 1713, the Peace of Utrecht was concluded, which invalidated eleven years of struggle for France. And then the heirs to the French throne stopped dying...

Double Louis XV 1764, gold

After an accident with his grandson, Louis XIV lost interest in life. Fearing further “accidents,” he even changed the law. Until then, only children born to the queen were heirs to the throne. Louis XIV had several illegitimate children. The king legitimized them and placed them in the hierarchy of the royal house after the princes of the blood. A couple of months later, Louis XIV specifically stipulated the following: in the event of the suppression of the legitimate family, the throne could be taken by newly-minted princes. He knew who was destroying his family, and he understood: the series of deaths was not accidental, and it could continue.

In 1715, the “Sun King” died. It would seem - the end of the story. But in reality it was just beginning. Less than a year after the death of the old king, the shareholders of the Bank of England were convinced that their fears were justified. They tried to brazenly steal their know-how, their invention. Copy how today cunning Chinese manufacturers copy the shape of cars of famous brands. It turned out to be impossible to keep the secret of the “typewriter”. The advantages and ingenious simplicity were obvious. Instead of the complex procedure of mining gold and silver, there is a simple process of printing money.

France, having lost the war due to “insufficient credit,” decided to open its own “typewriter.” In 1716, Scotsman John Lowe received a patent to open a private bank with the right to issue bank notes exchangeable for metal. King Louis XV of France at that moment was a baby and, of course, was not interested in financing issues. But the regent, Duke Philippe of Orleans, happily seized on the wonderful idea. He commands that bank notes begin to be accepted for payment of taxes on the same basis as specie.

In 1718, Lowe's Bank was renamed the State Bank. Although in essence it was the same “joint venture”, where the shares were divided between cunning bankers and royalty. Now the military and diplomatic rivalry between England and France has also taken a secret financial turn. Two groups of bankers, who received two different state “roofs,” fought among themselves for the right to uncontrollably print empty money. And thereby gain power over the world.

But we digress a little. Let's return to the French cloning of the “English” idea of ​​paper money. The story of England's rapid rise under William's scepter began to repeat itself in France. There is nothing surprising in this - your personal economics It will also bloom at once if you find a suitcase with money on the street. The State Bank of France was very successful. John Lowe, like a good wizard, decides at once financial difficulties royal power: he lends the government 100 million livres at 3% per annum. For comparison: at the time of the death of the “Sun King” the treasury had only 700 thousand livres. And at the end of 1716, when John Law turned on his “typewriter,” the budget deficit reached 140 million livres.

And now France can continue its global expansion because it has money. The French copy the English system not only in the main, but also in particular aspects. The government gives John Lowe control over the development of gold deposits in Louisiana and all overseas trade. Will do all this India Company, a complete analogue of the British East India Company. Shares of the new enterprise are sold initially to everyone, and then only to those who pay with bank notes, which could be received in exchange for their gold coins.

“It turned into a competition to see who could get rid of their gold the fastest.” But the successes will be short-lived, simply surprisingly short-lived. The monetary basis for the expansion of the French Empire will be destroyed in just a few months. Here is a chronology of the rise and immediate demise of the Bank of England's understudy on French soil. In January 1720, banker John Lowe, in the wake of the phenomenal success of the “shop,” became the general controller of finances of France, because the Bank he had just led lent France 100 million livres. And at this moment something terrible happens.

“Immediately, alarming rumors spread with incredible speed, and all of Paris found itself in the grip of a monstrous panic,” writes French writer Guy Breton in his book “Love Stories in the History of France.” And already at the beginning of 1720, a massive pressure began on the bank from those who wanted to exchange paper bank notes for coins. The exchange was first slowed down and then completely suspended. When did it happen? In February-March 1720. It is difficult to trace over the years how the “panic of investors” was organized, but I think that the technologies are no different from today.

Please note that this happened after three years of operation of the State Bank of France. This means that at first his business was going well. And suddenly they slid sharply downwards - after a “record” loan of 100 million livres received by the government. Coincidence? Judge for yourself - the blow was struck quickly and mercilessly. The bank, which issued 3 billion paper money guaranteed by 700 million cash coins, was unable to pay. But the French government did not want to give up without a fight. And I found a very “original” way out of the situation.

Since the population does not want to use paper banknotes, but prefers coins, it means that it is necessary... to ban the circulation of coins. “The decree of March 11, 1720 announced a ban on the use of specie after May 1; if found on anyone, it was subject to confiscation.” You can imagine the reaction this decision caused in France. Of course - general rejoicing and complete enthusiasm of the masses. After such a decree, the popularity of paper tickets fell completely, as did the popularity of royal power. Everyone began to chase the forbidden coin and run away from the permitted banknotes. And it very quickly ended in disaster.

The next decree of May 22, 1720 announced a reduction in the nominal rate of bank notes by half. That is, those who law-abidingly complied with the king’s previous decree and used paper money immediately became twice as poor. Then, on October 10, 1720, a third decree was issued to stop the circulation of tickets after November 1, 1720. It was decided to exchange small notes for government bonds with the nominal rate reduced by another half. The result was a very quick double robbery of law-abiding citizens.

It is clear that the royal government, which performed such tricks in France (directly “copied” from our Russian reforms), became extremely unpopular. It was at this time that the charge of hatred towards the French monarchy and country was laid, which in 1789 would lead to a revolution and smash the royal power to pieces. In November 1720, the State Bank went bankrupt, and its founder was forced to flee France a month later. It’s just interesting to know - WHERE? This would clear up a lot...

The further fate of the founder of the “typewriter” in France is unknown to me. But the fate of the founder of the Bank of England is known. As we remember, William III of Orange, King of England, reached an agreement with the bankers. And he didn’t break any agreements. Perhaps because he also died at the right time. In March 1702, he died in Kensington Palace from... (again?!) the consequences of a fall from a horse. Could this happen? It could. Only two facts arouse suspicion: the similar death of the Duke of Berry and the officially announced cause of death of the founder of the “typewriter”. Why exactly did he die?

Wilhelm died of pneumonia, which was a complication after a broken shoulder. Which, in turn, the king broke when falling from his horse. Who would have thought that pneumonia begins with a fracture? What is the connection between a fracture and pneumonia? Agree, all this is extremely interesting. And very suspicious... The founder of anything is necessary for the iconostasis. After all, it was this king who signed all the laws the bankers needed: he gave everything that he could and that they needed at that time. The next kings will receive the system as a given. And William III of Orange will take the secret of his agreements with him to the grave and will look sternly at the heirs to the throne from the ceremonial portrait.

The Bank of England will be a given for the new monarchs. Covenant and order. An unchangeable decision of an ancestor. It was time to start thinking about further steps to establish world hegemony. There was always one way to do this - war. The British elite, led by bankers, will add another one to the world geopolitical treasury - special operations. Both are generously “lubricated” with money - fortunately now they appear out of thin air. The War of the Spanish Succession is the beginning of the long journey of the “typewriter” to the July morning of 1944 in Bretton Woods, when the pound will give primacy to the dollar.

The time will come to change its location, and the “typewriter” will move overseas, where it will be safer. But first there will be the first World War, which will destroy the gold ruble and the gold German mark. The currency of the Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman empires will disappear into oblivion. There is only one step left to world domination, only one global war. And the scenario of World War II, which was written in London, will be different from what will happen in reality.

...And the main rule is that there are no rules

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