Ability to find organizational and management solutions. Management decisions. Need help studying a topic?

Avdoshina Zoya Alexandrovna Senior Lecturer, Department of Sociology, Political Science and Management, Kazan State University technical university, Associate Professor of the Department of Management of the Russian International Academy of Tourism (Kazan branch)

1. Concept, development process and features of management decisions

1.1. The concept and process of developing a management decision

A management decision is a natural result of a manager’s activity and is implemented in the form of directive, targeted influence on the management object.

Management decision- an act of purposefully changing the situation, resolving a problem, a variant of influencing the system and the processes occurring in it. Management decisions involve management actions leading to resolving contradictions and changing the situation. Any decision is based on the analysis of data characterizing the situation, the definition of goals and objectives, and contains a program and algorithm of actions for the implementation of measures. Management decisions are actually the main result of the activities of managers at any level of the hierarchical ladder. So, for example, heads of organizations and leading top managers can decide to expand the organization, enter new markets, or change the direction of the organization’s financial flows. These are the most complex strategic decisions that are made with a great deal of caution and involve analyzing a number of factors, modeling various options for the development of the situation, forecasting accurate quantitative results: profit, gross sales revenue, market share, market development rates, etc. A decision-making process at this level requires planning activities that may include changes in structure, assortment policy, type of activity of the organization. Decisions can be made at the level of director, head of a workshop or department, or foreman.

Depending on the level of management, the degree of responsibility and consequences of decisions made change. Thus, some managers have the authority to make decisions on financial, personnel issues, and problems of product (service) quality. For example, the head of an organization may decide to purchase new equipment, change the wage system, or ensure quality. The head of the sales department makes decisions on concluding sales contracts, conducting promotions within the allocated budget, etc.

In the process of developing solutions, managers analyze information, communicate with managers at other management levels, with those directly involved in activities, customers, think through scenarios for the development of the situation, hold business meetings, and choose the best alternative.

Adoption process management decisions consists of a number of successive stages (See: Fig. 1.).

At the first stage, a problem arises that must be resolved in a timely manner, otherwise a situation of imbalance in the system may arise. Thus, a decrease in the competitiveness of an organization in the market will lead to a decrease in demand for its goods or services. In the future, this may mean loss of profit, and even the emergence of a situation of insolvency of the organization, actual bankruptcy.

In conditions when an organization is prospering and profitable, decisions are required, for example, about expanding activities, buying a business in another area, diversifying, investing in capital construction etc. Such decisions require thoughtful actions by managers and accurate diagnosis of the system state.

Let's move on to stage 2 of making a management decision. In this case, the manager is faced with the need to analyze documents: financial statements, sales dynamics, contracts, data on the advantages of competing firms.

Rice. 1. Stages of the decision-making process

The manager studies communication channels and information coming to him from various sources: from employees of the organization, customers, competitors; sees himself in this information field, watches people who can help him make the right effective decision.

At the third stage, a management decision is made individually by the manager or together with a group, for example, at a business meeting. Also, the manager can use the opinion of competent specialists, experts in the chosen field of activity to make decisions. Can discuss the problem with them, get their competent opinion, and then decide on further actions. Thus, a financial or marketing audit (assessment) of activities is in great demand, which can help the manager make the optimal decision with the least loss for the organization.

And finally, stage 4 involves making a decision, which is recorded in administrative documents: orders, instructions, technical specifications, different types plans; and is also reflected in regulatory sources, enterprise standards, general provisions, charter, internal regulations and rules of the organization. It is important not only to make a timely decision, but also to monitor the implementation of activities carried out in accordance with adopted official documents, and to motivate the personnel who are involved in the implementation of these activities.

Let us outline the basic concepts associated with making management decisions.

Control— targeted impact on the system and processes that are designed to unite the efforts of employees to achieve specific goals of the organization.

Management process— a set of time-sequential operations and activities that make up the impact of the control system on the control object (organization).

Control system— a set of interrelated elements, a method of implementing control technology that involves influencing an object in order to change its state and process characteristics.

Management goal- an ideal image of the desired, necessary and possible state of the system, determined by a number of quantitative and qualitative indicators.

Situation— the state of the controlled system, assessed relative to the goal or initial, specified parameters.

Problem- a contradiction, a mismatch in the system that can bring it out of balance and threaten its viability in the environment.

Information- a reflection in a person’s consciousness of the reality around him, a set of information about the state of the controlled system.

Organization of development of management decisions— streamlining the activities of individual departments and individual employees in the process of developing a solution. The organization is carried out through regulations, standards, organizational requirements, instructions, delegation of rights and responsibilities.

Management decision development technology— a variant of the sequence of operations for developing a solution, selected according to the criteria of the rationality of their implementation, the use of special equipment, personnel qualifications, and the conditions for carrying out activities.

Management decision methodology— logical organization of activities to develop management decisions. Includes formulation of management goals, selection of methods for developing solutions, criteria for evaluating options, drawing up an algorithm for performing solution development operations. General methodological approaches used to analyze the methodology of management decisions can be considered: rationalistic, behavioral, systemic, situational, process, cybernetic, and synergetic.

The process of making a management decision consists of successive stages, such as: the emergence of a problem, diagnosing the state of processes in the organization, developing a solution and monitoring the implementation of planned activities. All these stages are necessary steps towards effective management. Managers are required not only to know management theory, but also to master methods: analyzing information, organizing work in a group to make joint decisions with colleagues.

Methods for developing management decisions- these are ways and techniques of performing operations necessary in the process of their adoption. These include methods of analyzing, processing information, choosing options for action, etc.

Any organization, starting from the moment of its inception, faces a number of problems that can provoke a dangerous situation, accompanied by a sharp deterioration in performance indicators: liquidity, solvency, profitability, turnover working capital, financial stability. Market forms of management in conditions of fierce competition lead to the insolvency of individual business entities or their temporary insolvency. The problem provides information, a “key to thinking.” It is necessary to make a decision that can change the situation and improve the condition of the organization.

Management theory has an established set of concepts, categories and methods for a comprehensive assessment of production and economic activities, and the effective organization of the decision-making process at all levels of management. System analysis allows us to identify the feasibility of creating or improving an organization, determine which complexity class it belongs to, and identify the most effective methods scientific organization labor. In order to identify the reasons for the deterioration of the organization's performance parameters, problems are diagnosed.

Management diagnostics is a set of methods aimed at identifying problems, weak “bottlenecks” in the management system, which are the causes of the unfavorable state of processes in the organization. Diagnostics can be understood as an assessment of the company’s activities from the point of view of obtaining an overall management effect and determining deviations of existing system parameters from the initially specified ones, assessing the functioning of the organization in a mobile, changing external environment.

Management decisions must be developed by managers at the scientific level of management, using the entire complex of methods of analysis, diagnostics, planning, modeling and forecasting. An effective manager is a competent specialist who knows how to make decisions in a timely manner, direct and motivate staff to implement them, plan the resource base, implement effective behavioral models, and choose an adequate leadership style.

1.2. Types of management decisions: criteria, advantages and disadvantages

In the practice of organizations, a huge number of decisions are made every day. There was a breakdown of office equipment. The head of the department makes a decision on repairs. Staff turnover has increased. The head of the personnel development department decides to implement a new employee support system, including social package And flexible system bonuses. A new competitor has appeared and the head of the marketing service is forced to adjust the pricing policy. There are many such examples. In management theory, there are several types of decisions.

1) Typology according to the degree of participation of managers at different levels and specialists:

• collegial (expert and by agreement);
• collective (democratic);
• individual (sole).

Collegial decision is a decision made by a group of managers and specialists.

As a rule, decisions are made by the head of the organization in agreement with leading top managers and specialists, collectively. This happens in most companies. The manager delegates parallel powers or uses the technique of mandatory approval, which is stated in administrative documents as “agreed”. With mandatory approvals, responsibility for making significant decisions partially rests with the managers who assume such authority. Parallel powers increase the responsibility and rights of managers, and the decision becomes collective. For example, many companies use parallel powers to control financial expenses, and in the case of large purchases, two or three executive signatures are required.

Collective decisions are usually made at business meetings and during the work of the commissions by leading managers and specialists. At such meetings there is already a known balance of power, which significantly influences the management result, the decision. Thus, the balance of power may be such that one or two managers may have priority in making a decision, although formally the decision is made collectively. This is the disadvantage of collegial decisions. Therefore, managers turn to experts who can help them make important decisions. Such decisions are made if a group of specialists is involved: external auditors or employees of the organization’s headquarters services. For example, to resolve a controversial issue, a manager can involve a legal service, and to develop a strategic plan, use the services of a group of analysts. An expert commission may be formed with the involvement of external experts in the field of quality or financial audit.

Modern management theory offers methods and techniques that a manager can use to optimize the work of a small group and increase the effectiveness of decisions made.

Collective (democratic) decisions- these are decisions made by the majority of the organization’s employees, jointly by the work collective or by a small group. Unlike collegial ones, democratic decisions are a clear expression of the will of the majority of members of the work collective, small or large. Such decisions are made through secret voting, using expert assessment methods, for example, nominal group technique, Japanese ring techniques. The use of such methods is possible with a high level of staff motivation, the use of a democratic leadership style, and a developed and transparent corporate culture.

Collective decisions are also made when significant problems and issues that affect the entire staff are raised. For example, election of a manager through a competition, implementation new system wages, etc.

Individual management solutions- These are decisions that are made by the leader alone. Small business organizations have a small number of management levels and a high risk of losing competitive status. Such an organization is led by an entrepreneur who bears full responsibility for its further functioning in unstable market conditions. An entrepreneur is afraid to delegate authority on financial and other significant issues to his subordinates and makes decisions alone. The positive aspect of an individual solution is its creative, extraordinary nature.

The disadvantages of individual decisions appear when they acquire an authoritarian character. The manager usurps power, individually manages resources, determines the organization's personnel policy and puts pressure on subordinates. Decisions made by the manager alone allow the organization to remain in the market for some time and be successful. However, in the future, the leadership style used by the leader hinders the development of the organization. A leader must be able to maneuver and be flexible, use the art of delegating decision-making powers to other people in the organization.

2) Typology by levels of planning and time of implementation of activities

• strategic
• tactical
• operational

Strategic management decisions- these are decisions that are made at the highest level of management for the long-term development of the organization. Such decisions are followed by the development of: a strategic plan, the production program of the organization. Strategic decisions involve fundamental changes in the organization: changing the directions of financial flows into product groups or target segments, transforming the structure, entering new regional markets, expanding or reducing activities, changing assortment policy. Strategic management decisions are made at the level of directors, vice-presidents of the company, deputy. directors, managers production units and workshops. In a small business, all responsibility for making strategic decisions is concentrated in the hands of the manager and his team.

Tactical management decisions- these are decisions that are made at the top and middle levels of management for the year or quarter and include activities necessary to implement annual or quarterly plans: sales, production or provision of services. Tactical goals specify the strategic goal and, accordingly, tactical decisions are necessary to achieve this goal. Tactical decisions may be associated with thinking through new models of behavior in the market, changing pricing policy, organizing advertising campaigns, optimizing the work of professional teams, etc. Purchasing new equipment, introducing a system of discounts and benefits for profitable customers, introducing a system of bonuses and bonuses for the results achieved by staff, changing the pricing principle - these are examples of tactical decisions.

Operational management decisions— decisions made in the middle and lower echelons of management related to organizing the work of direct performers, providing them with resources, materials, and information. Purchasing materials, repairing office equipment, sending workers to certain areas to perform technical assignments, concluding contracts with consumers are examples of operational management decisions. Such decisions are made in the process of daily, hard work of the workforce and require regular monitoring by the manager.

3) Typology by content management process

• social
• economic
• organizational
• technical.

The substantive typology, in contrast to those discussed above, reflects the essential characteristics of management decisions, which have a specific focus and are associated with various aspects of activity. So, economic decisions associated with the management system, necessary for growth economic efficiency activities of the organization, profitability, payback and liquidity of assets. How best to manage resources, make the enterprise profitable, increase profits - these and other questions will confront the manager making economic decisions.

Social solutions- these are decisions affecting the social structure of the organization, personnel, corporate culture, climate and shared values. Social solutions can be associated with optimizing the work of personnel, improving the motivation system and social support employees, the image of the organization in society, the implementation of the mission. Raising wages, introducing environmentally friendly equipment, improving sanitation, strengthening safety requirements, and resolving conflict are examples of socially responsible decisions.

Organizational decisions- these are decisions related to management methods, ways to achieve goals. Organize workers to complete the task, redistribute functions and powers, carry out general meeting, are examples of organizational decisions. Such decisions are an integral part of the management process.

Technical solutions — these are operational decisions that are necessary to ensure labor and production processes, supply the necessary resources, materials, and information. Install software in the department, replace a broken machine, pay travel expenses, direct the employee to an important production area, are examples of technical solutions.

So, management decisions are different in content, time parameters, levels of planning, but all of them are an integral component of the management process. The effect of their implementation directly depends on the manager’s ability to predict the situation, foresee the consequences of decisions made, and the ability to use not only his own potential, but, above all, the capabilities of the group and the team as a whole.

2. The human factor in making management decisions

2.1. The role of the manager in the process of developing management decisions

The human factor assumes that people play a key role in the complex process of developing management decisions. This is a manager, a leading specialist, and an ordinary performer. The quality of decisions and the effectiveness of joint activities depend on the coordinated work of all employees.

The human factor of management decision making includes:

1) Skillful delegation of authority.

2) Implementation of communications, availability of feedback with staff and consumers.

3) Behavioral characteristics of managers, organizational culture.

4) Leadership style, attitude towards hired personnel and organization collaboration for the purpose of developing management decisions.

5) Methods personnel work and personnel management system.

6) Timely prevention of conflicts.

Delegation of authority, feedback from staff, manager’s behavior model, attitude towards employees, style of communication with consumers, climate, culture of the organization, all these are factors in the interaction of people and processes in the organization. Particular importance is attached to the ability of managers and executives to organize personnel and attract them to participate in the process of developing solutions. Collegial and collective decisions are more effective than individual ones, so the manager must skillfully direct staff to achieve the organization’s goals and delegate authority to solve problems.

Delegation of authority- this is the transfer of rights and responsibilities from a superior manager to a subordinate, from a line manager to the head of the headquarters structure, from a manager directly to a subordinate.

Skillful delegation of authority is an integral component of the process of making collective management decisions. If the manager does not delegate authority, then management decisions are made by him alone.

Classic management literature discusses difficulties that managers have when delegating authority. Thus, Newman gives five reasons for the reluctance of managers to delegate authority:

1) The leader’s misconception: “I’ll do it better.” But if the manager does not allow subordinates to perform new tasks with additional powers, then they will not improve their skills.

2) Managers become so immersed in the day-to-day work that they neglect the bigger picture. Unable to take a long-term view of a series of jobs, they cannot fully understand the significance of distributing work among subordinates.

3) Lack of trust in subordinates. If managers act as if they do not trust subordinates, then subordinates will actually perform accordingly. They will lose initiative and feel the need to frequently ask if they are doing the job correctly.

4) Fear of risk. Because managers are responsible for a subordinate's work, they may be concerned that delegating a task may create problems for which they will have to answer.

5) Ineffective control mechanisms. Management will have reason to be concerned about delegating additional authority to subordinates.

Subordinates avoid responsibility and block the delegation process for six main reasons:

1) The subordinate finds it more convenient to ask the boss what to do than to solve the problem himself.

2) The subordinate is afraid of criticism for mistakes made. Since greater responsibility increases the possibility of making a mistake, the subordinate avoids it.

3) The subordinate lacks the information and resources necessary to successfully complete the task.

4) The subordinate already has more work than he can do, or he believes that this is actually the case.

5) The subordinate lacks self-confidence.

6) The subordinate is not offered any positive incentives for additional responsibility.

The reasons for the reluctance to delegate authority or, on the contrary, to take responsibility, lie in the peculiarities of the psychology of the personality of employees. What is significant is: emotional interaction between members of the work team, behavioral models chosen by managers and forms of control over the implementation of decisions, feedback from subordinates, motivation of employees to participate in the process of developing responsible decisions.

Only managers themselves can make the process of delegating authority and developing joint management decisions effective. The leader directs, stimulates, organizes, determines policies, and shapes the culture of the organization.

The behavioral characteristics of managers influence their leadership style, the chosen forms and methods of making management decisions.

Rice. 2. Personnel management system of a modern organization

Behavioral characteristics of managers include:

1) Methods of assessment and control used by the manager.

2) Responding to the occurrence of problems or critical situations in the organization.

3) A feasible role model that encourages employees to imitate.

4) Criteria for allocating the organization's resources.

5) The criteria by which the manager determines the level of remuneration and status of the employee

6) The criteria that the manager uses when recruiting, selecting, promoting, transferring and dismissing employees.

The manager's behavioral model is recorded in the minds of subordinates through informal communication channels. Everyday information coming from a leader is actions, stories, jargon, symbols, symbolic actions. This is the main mechanism for consolidating the foundations of culture.

Leaders shape culture through informal communication channels. But the leader acts formally, using management methods work with personnel.

The personnel management system (See: Fig. 2.) must be formed in such a way that employees have the opportunity to learn, receive an objective assessment of their activities, and advance in career ladder, have social guarantees and motivation to participate in important decisions. What matters is personnel policy, the socio-psychological climate in the team, culture, and the ability to implement a democratic leadership style.

In the management literature, there are mainly three main leadership styles that strongly influence the forms of management decision-making: authoritarian, liberal and democratic.

Authoritarian leadership style characterized by strict centralization, the process of developing management decisions from one management center, pressure on subordinates, and the use of manipulative strategies to influence personnel. This style is chosen by the leadership of highly bureaucratic structures or small business organizations with a significant concentration of power in the hands of one person - the entrepreneur.

Democratic leadership style characterized by a high degree of participation of the workforce or managers of middle and lower levels of management in making strategically important decisions. In the first case we're talking about about collective decisions, and in the second about collegial ones. The democratic style is used in decentralized organizations in which management is carried out according to goals and results. Such organizations are characterized by: flexible, adaptive structures, high motivation and staff competence.

Liberal leadership style characterized by a certain level of opportunities for employee participation in management decision-making. However, the situation in a team can develop differently, sometimes unpredictably. A leader who uses a liberal style can withdraw from management. In this case, the organization is managed by representatives of the “elite core”, who receive unlimited access to power and resources. Clashes between different groups and a sharp increase in conflicts in the team are possible.

Leadership styles have a significant impact on the process of developing a management decision: the chosen forms of control, management methods (See: table 1.). Leadership styles are closely related to the structural structure of the organization and the general management system.

Studying human factor development of management decisions, we note: the decisive role in this complex process belongs to the manager. Requirements to professional competence manager include not only the necessary knowledge and skills, but also certain human properties of him as an individual.

2.2. Social aspects of developing management decisions in tourism organizations

The development of management decisions in tourism organizations has certain specifics. The art of communication and action according to the situation are especially in demand here. Tourism organizations will experience an acute shortage of workers and qualified specialists in the field of tourism management and hotel business.

Concluding an agreement with a well-known tour operator, preparing a package of documents for tourists, purchasing furniture and equipment, sending employees on a study tour, increasing advertising costs, creating your own website - all this examples of management decision making in tourism. This area activities require special knowledge and skills from managers.

Requirements for the professional competence of managers in the field of tourism suggest:

1) Knowledge of tourism product sales technology.

2) Business communication skills and knowledge of client psychology.

3) Knowledge of the basics of regional studies and the main directions of tourism.

4) Ability to work with documents and databases.

5) Knowledge legal framework tourism activities.

6) Fluency in Internet technologies, sales and online booking skills.

7) Use positive behavior models.

Let us recall the basic concepts of tourism management that appear in legislative acts.

Tourism— temporary departures (travels) of citizens Russian Federation, foreign citizens and stateless persons (hereinafter referred to as citizens) from permanent residence for health, educational, professional, business, sports, religious and other purposes without engaging in paid activities in the country (place) of temporary stay;

Tourist activities— tour operator and travel agency activities, as well as other travel organization activities;

Tourist- a citizen visiting the country (place) of temporary stay for health, educational, professional, business, sports, religious and other purposes without engaging in paid activities for a period from 24 hours to 6 months in a row or spending at least one overnight stay;

Tourism industry- a set of hotels and other accommodation facilities, means of transport, public catering facilities, entertainment facilities and means, educational, business, recreational, sports and other facilities, organizations engaged in tour operator and travel agency activities, as well as organizations providing excursion services and guide services - translators;

Tourist product— the right to a tour intended for sale to tourists;

Tour operator activities- activities for the formation, promotion and sale of a tourism product, carried out on the basis of a license legal entity or individual entrepreneur(hereinafter referred to as the tour operator);

Travel agency activities- activities for the promotion and sale of a tourist product, carried out on the basis of a license by a legal entity or individual entrepreneur (hereinafter referred to as a travel agent);

Tourist package— a document confirming the fact of transfer of the tourism product;

Tourist voucher- a document establishing the tourist’s right to services included in the tour and confirming the fact of their provision.

Note that travel agencies- These are, as a rule, small organizations with a limited staff. The success of such an organization depends on the ability of managers to respond in a timely manner to consumer requests and the market situation.

Large tour operators promote tourism products to regional markets. They should care about the quality of tours and service.

Decisions made in tourism organizations depend on the type of tourism activity (tour operator, travel agent, etc.)

Management decisions made in a tour operator organization:

• concluding agreements with regional representatives;
• material support of the organization,
• carrying out advertising campaigns and promotions;
• concluding contracts with individual clients;
• development of new areas of tourism activity;
• entering new markets;
• concluding agreements with foreign partners;
• creation of a reserve fund;
• creation of an electronic sales system and its improvement;
• creating conditions to ensure the safety of tourists, etc.

Management decisions made in a travel agency organization:

• concluding agreements with tour operators, owners of famous brands,
• preparation of a package of documents for tourists;
• material support for the company, decoration of premises and supply of office equipment;
• sending employees for training;
• creation of an organization website and promotion to the market;
• use of an electronic booking system;
• organizing an effective system of working with clients (by telephone and in person);
• solving unforeseen situations and problems.

A manager in the tourism business spends most of his time on communications and communicating with consumers, so special attention should be paid to creating an adequate corporate culture with a high management context.

Culture is a set of traditions, norms, values, meanings, ideas, sign systems characteristic of a social community.

Organizational culture, according to E. Schein’s definition, is a set of collective basic ideas acquired by a group when solving problems of adaptation to change external environment and internal integration.

The constituent elements of organizational culture are:

• observed behavioral stereotypes in the interaction of people (language, customs, traditions);
• group norms (values, standards characteristic of work groups);
• proclaimed values ​​(publicly declared principles and values ​​to which the organization strives);
• formal philosophy (general and ideological principles that will determine the group’s actions in relation to shareholders, employees, clients, intermediaries);
• rules of the game (rules of behavior at work, restrictions that a newcomer needs to learn);
• climate (feelings determined by physical composition groups and the manner in which members interact);
• existing practical experience (methods and techniques that do not require written recording);
• way of thinking and mental models (systems that determine perception, thinking and language, transmitted to group members at the stage of socialization);
• accepted meanings (instant mutual understanding that arises during communication);
• basic metaphors (ideas, feelings and images developed by a group for self-determination, embodied in buildings, office structure and other material aspects, reflect the emotional and aesthetic reactions of group members).

Culture has properties universality, informality and sustainability. It covers all aspects of activity and is associated with traditions that have been repeated over the years.

Culture fulfills Features: adaptation, internal integration, coordination of personnel behavior, optimization of employee motivation and profiling of the organization's image.

Culture of tourism organizations characterized by a pronounced focus on consumer needs and includes:

1) A special culture of communication with clients (understanding, informativeness, decency)

2) Traditions and atmosphere of travel and recreation

3) Group norms for joint, conflict-free effective activity

4) Philosophy of satisfying comprehensive customer needs

5) Favorable socio-psychological climate

6) Proficient operational skills in working with office equipment and databases

7) Basic metaphors embodied in office decoration, room design, aimed at potential tourists (comfortable furniture; modern office equipment; souvenirs reminiscent of travel; booklets and magazines informing about vacation destinations, etc.)

8) Openness to the world and other cultures.

Social aspects of management decision making in the tourism industry can be characterized as follows.

1) Presented high requirements to the competence of managers, the growth of their initiative and responsibility

2) The role of communications is increasing; feedback from consumers is necessary

3) The behavioral characteristics of managers and organizational culture are characterized by a focus on consumers

4) Democratic leadership style, non-conflict and joint problem solving prevails

5) HR methods are focused on continuous training and development of personnel

6) Achieving efficiency is possible subject to the creation of a special culture of the organization

So, the development of management decisions in tourism is initiative, creative work, an innovative approach to work, goodwill and action according to the situation.

3. Organization of the process of developing management decisions and monitoring the implementation of measures

3.1. Methods for developing management decisions

To make informed decisions, it is necessary to rely on the experience, knowledge and intuition of specialists. Collegial and group decisions have significant advantages over individual decisions. Therefore, in management, considerable attention is paid to issues of working in a group, team, as well as ways to develop joint solutions. In this case, managers and specialists involved in developing solutions can be considered as experts on the chosen problem. Methods of expert assessments involve organizing work with specialists, processing their opinions, expressed in quantitative and qualitative forms, in order to prepare information for decision-making.

Rice. 3. Example of a cause-and-effect tree for a tourism organization

Expert methods for developing management decisions- these are methods based on analysis and averaging different ways opinions and judgments of specialist experts on the issues under consideration. Often accompanied by the creation of special working groups of specialists and an expert commission. Experts can be managers who are responsible for making important decisions and are quite competent specialists.

Expert assessment methods: Delphi, round table, brainstorming, scenario method, weighted average method, business game, Japanese ringi method.

Delphi- one of the methods of expert forecasting, based on a consistent assessment by specialists of any proposed alternatives. Can be applied in the process of group management decision making by selecting the best alternative. The results of expert assessments are entered into a table (See: table 5).

Let's consider how the Delphi method can be applied to make management decisions in a travel agency.

Let's say that a tourism organization has a problem of reducing its competitive status against the backdrop of the emergence of new competitors with significant advantages (well-known brand, low prices).

Goal: to develop an optimal management solution through a group session and the use of expert assessment techniques.

Stage 1. The problem is discussed in a group of specialists, a tree of cause-and-effect relationships (problem tree) is built (See: Fig. 3)

Stage 2. Using the brainstorming method, 5-8 alternatives are identified, which are ways to solve the problem under consideration.

Stage 3. Based on the Delphi table (See Table 2), the most significant alternatives are determined.

Weighted average method is effective for experts to evaluate a number of alternatives and options for loosely structured solutions.

A system of weighted criteria can be used to evaluate product suppliers. At the first stage, experts evaluate the selection criteria directly. Let's assume the price for tour packages, bonuses for supply volumes, etc. All criteria are “weighted” in relation to the main criterion (See: table 3). All are assessed according to selected weighted criteria. possible options decisions. Let's say there are four tour operator companies: A, B, C, D. In fact, there may be much more of them. At this stage it is made comparative assessment each company for each criterion (See: table 4).

At the last stage, the total weighing of the options is determined taking into account the different “weight” category of each criterion, i.e. the weight indicators of the selection criteria are multiplied by the weighted options for each row (See: Table 3). The total weighted assessment shows the most adequate assessment of firms supplying tourism products.

Modeling a management decision is the development of a solution option in an abstract form, suggesting the possibility of change, operating with a large number of variables, and analyzing scenarios and situations related to this solution. The main goal of modeling a management decision is choice the best option taking into account the predictability of the situation. The advantage of modeling a management decision as a method is that a manager can use his full potential: intelligence, intuition, management skills, and the ability of rational foresight.

Functional-decompositional representation of the system in the form of an aggregate complements mathematical modeling methods. It is most convenient to use the general representation of the system in the form of a mathematical model, for example, in the form of service loops or a vector model (See: Fig. 4).

Rice. 4. Representation of the system as an aggregate

The methods for developing management decisions discussed above make it possible to increase management efficiency, because in this case, a number of factors influencing the development of the organization are analyzed. Factors or conditions that may not be noticed by an individual leader if he makes a decision are analyzed comprehensively and systematically when using group and expert methods. Group forms of solution development are more effective and reliable compared to individual methods.

4.2. Efficiency, control and quality of management decisions

Efficiency of management decisions— this is 1) a set of indicators indicating the achievement of the organization’s goals and the achievement of certain results in its activities; 2) the main result of the activities of managers to transform the management system and processes occurring in the organization.

The effectiveness of management decisions is determined by three main groups of organizational performance indicators:

1) Economic efficiency indicators:

• profit;
• revenues from sales;
• profitability;
• cost price;
• profitability;
• liquidity;
• management costs.

• quality of products or services;
• labor productivity;
• the ratio of growth rates of labor productivity and wages;
• wage fund (payroll);
• average salary;
• loss of working time per 1 employee (person-days);
• quality of staff work (points or %).

• staff turnover (the ratio of the number of dismissed employees to the total number of personnel),
• level labor discipline(ratio of the number of cases of violation of labor and performance discipline to the total number of personnel),
• ratio of management personnel, workers and employees,
• uniformity of staff load,
• coefficient of labor participation (KTU) or contribution (KTV)
• socio-psychological climate in the team.

Quality of management decision- a set of properties that a management decision has that meet, to one degree or another, the needs of successfully resolving a problem (timeliness, targeting, specificity, and other properties) (See: Fig. 5.)

Management decisions must be reliable, timely, targeted, planned, and effective.

Control over the execution of management decisions is a set of procedures and techniques management activities, which are used to record and adjust ongoing activities.

Methods of monitoring the implementation of management decisions.

1) Recording the results of the activities carried out.

2) Analysis of reporting documentation.

3) Conversations and business meetings.

4) Adjustment of plans.

5) Analysis of performance indicators of departments, services, and the organization as a whole.

6) Motivation for participation in the development of solutions.

Rice. 5. Conditions and factors determining the quality of management decisions

Control is an important component of the process of developing management decisions; it affects labor productivity, quality of products (services) and the effectiveness of decisions.

IN modern theory techniques and methods are used that make it possible to identify the causes of quality deterioration and discover cause-and-effect relationships between a number of factors.

Ishikawa Causal Diagram is an expert method that first appeared in Japan and is used to identify the causes of failure technological processes in the event that obvious violations are difficult to detect. Let's consider a cause-and-effect diagram using the example of a tourism organization (See: Fig. 6).

Tourism organizations often have to deal with hidden, not always obvious facts that worsen the quality of services.

For example, often in organizations, the manner of communication with consumers does not correspond high standards international service. Possible: inattention or, on the contrary, excessive pressure on the client. There may be inflexibility in communication. In travel companies, the problems of insufficient awareness of clients, failure to fulfill the terms of contractual relations, safety of tourists, etc. are relevant.

In this scheme, it is necessary to detect cause-and-effect relationships between the main indicator (quality of services of a tourism organization), the main groups of influencing factors and the reasons for the decline in quality separately in each group. Thus, during consistent analysis, we can discover hidden reasons that negatively affect quality.

The weight of each indicator is calculated by expert means, i.e. it is determined how important this factor is for ensuring the quality of services of a tourism organization.

Management decisions made in tourism organizations can change the quality of services, improve, or, on the contrary, worsen it. An organization can become competitive, or, on the contrary, it can lose its advantages in the market. All this depends on the skills and ability of the manager to make timely, optimal decisions, as well as choose the best style of managing the work team.

Undoubtedly, the priorities of management decisions in the tourism business should be: quality, brand equity and long-term strategy.

Rice. 6. Example of an Ishikawa cause-and-effect diagram of a tourism organization

4.3. Parameters of the effectiveness of management decisions in tourism organizations

Efficiency of management decisions in tourism organizations is determined by a set of indicators indicating the achievement of goals and the growth of the organization’s competitiveness.

Let us highlight the main groups of indicators of a successful tourism organization.

1) Indicators of competitiveness of a tourism organization:

• market share;
• brand equity;
• the ability to use the best pricing strategy;
• quality of tourism product;
• wide selection of tourist products;
• high level service,
• the use of means of promoting tourism products, which can contribute to the growth of the company’s image, increase in sales volume, and profitability of the organization;
• the opportunity to use resources that can make tourism products even more attractive to the target audience.

2) Indicators of quality and productivity of work:

• personnel competence;
• personnel are focused on working in this field of activity;
• a set of moral and material motives for personnel activities as an advantage;
• wage fund (payroll);
• equipping workplaces with modern office equipment;
• continuous staff training;
• level of performance discipline;
• implementation of calendar plans and achievement of planned indicators.

3) Social efficiency indicators:

• reduction in staff turnover;
• favorable socio-psychological climate in the team;
• organizational culture is customer-oriented;
• high level of corporatism (commitment to tourism activities, common goals of employees and organization);
• competence in communicating with clients;
• maintaining a special travel and recreation environment;
• Skillful staff skills in working with data banks and using modern information systems.

So, the parameters of the effectiveness of management decisions in tourism organizations are the main result of the activities of managers. Managers develop timely, highly effective solutions and can provide consumers with high quality tourism products. A high-quality and safe tourism product is what the consumer wants to see.

Quality management system of a tourism organization- this is a set of interrelated elements, the main goal of which is to satisfy the needs of consumers, provide them with services and high-quality tourism products (See: Fig. 7.). Quality is understood as a measure of consumer satisfaction, as well as compliance with standards and regulatory and technical documents.

Rice. 7. Quality management system of a tourism organization

In order to protect the rights and interests of tourists, licensing, standardization of tour operator and travel agency activities, as well as objects of the tourism industry, and certification of the tourism product are carried out.

Factors that determine the quality of a tourism product depend on the type of product. Currently, the tourism industry market offers a wide variety of programs and products.

Main types of tourism products and tourism destinations:

• excursion and bus tours;
• river and sea cruises;
• extreme tourism;
• event tourism (festivals, public events etc.);
• medical and health tourism;
• domestic tourism (holidays in Russia);
• sports tourism;
• children's and youth recreation programs;
• winter and summer beach recreation programs;
• business tourism;
• individual tourism;
• inbound tourism (reception and service of foreign tourists);
• education abroad.

Tour quality is a set of indicators that expresses the measure of customer satisfaction, compliance with standards and regulatory requirements.

The quality of a tour is determined by a number of indicators.

1) Ensuring the rights of tourists, their safety and fulfillment of contractual obligations.

In preparation for the trip, during the trip, including transit, the tourist has the right to:

• necessary and reliable information about the rules of entry into the country (place) of temporary stay and stay there, about the customs of the local population, about religious rituals, natural monuments, history, culture and other tourist attractions;
• freedom of movement, free access to tourist resources, taking into account the restrictive measures adopted in the country (place) of temporary stay;
• ensuring personal safety, your consumer rights and the safety of your property, unhindered receipt of emergency medical care;
• damages and compensation moral damage in case of failure to comply with the terms of the contract for the retail purchase and sale of a tourist product (agreement) by the tour operator or travel agent in the manner established by law Russian Federation;
• assistance from authorities (bodies local government) country (place) of temporary stay to receive legal and other types of emergency assistance;
• unhindered access to communications.

2) Quality of services included in the tour:

• the price of the tourist product and the procedure for its payment;
• procedure for meeting, seeing off and accompanying tourists;
• minimum number of tourists in a group;
• tourist insurance in case of sudden illness or accident;
• convenient location of the hotel (place) of rest;
• security in the hotel (place) of the tourist’s stay;
• cleanliness and comfort of the rooms;
• price per room;
• Additional services;
• restaurant service;
• quality of organization of excursions;
• organization of entertainment events;
• quality of services of health centers;
• availability of exercise machines and sports equipment;
• proximity (distance) from desired natural or artificially created objects (sea, nature reserves, swimming pools, amusement parks, etc.);
• attitude of the hotel staff;
• implementation of the schedule of excursions and events;
• quality of guide (translator) services;
• contingent of vacationers.

The quality of a tour is determined by a number of indicators that require careful analysis, market research and consumer requests. A tourism manager may face challenges and circumstances that are difficult to predict and overcome. Environmental disasters, tsunamis, floods, flight cancellations, thefts, attacks on tourists and other facts that travel agency employees may encounter. During the holiday period, a tourist expects to receive new pleasant impressions. He moves from one country to another, from his region to a place of residence that is completely different in natural and cultural characteristics. Accordingly, negative factors, poor quality of service, flight delays, etc. may prompt him to further use the services of another travel company. A tourist organization must fulfill all its obligations, anticipate the wishes of tourists and take care of high quality their services. The effectiveness of developing management decisions in tourism organizations is determined, first of all, by the full satisfaction of consumer demands.

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All management decisions can be divided into two types:

• - traditional solutions that have taken place many times before, in this case you should choose one of the existing ones alternative options;
• - non-traditional, non-standard management decisions, their development is associated with the search for new alternative options.

In this regard, traditional, typical, repetitive management decisions can be formalized, that is, they can be made and implemented according to a predetermined algorithm. Consequently, a formalized management decision is the result of performing a pre-established sequence of actions. For example, when a repair schedule for machinery and equipment is drawn up, they proceed from a standard that determines the relationship between the amount of equipment and the number of repair workers. So, if in machine shop If this organization operates one hundred units of equipment, and the standard for its maintenance is 10 units per repair worker, then this workshop should contain ten repair workers. Further, if the issue of investing in securities is being decided, then a choice is made of their individual types based on which securities provide the opportunity to receive the maximum profit per invested capital.

As a result of the formalization of decision-making, the level of management efficiency increases by reducing the likelihood of making an error, as well as by saving time, since there is no need to develop this solution starting from scratch.

As a result, the management of the organization tries to formalize management decisions in case of those situations that are systematically repeated in the activities of this organization. Formalization of management decisions consists in the development of certain rules, instructions, standards that allow making and implementing competent management decisions.

Along with recurring situations, there are also atypical situations that have not been encountered before and cannot be resolved formally.

Most management decisions are between these two types, which makes it possible to use both formalized methods and the own initiative of the developers of these decisions when making these decisions.

The quality and effectiveness of management decisions are determined by the degree of validity of the methodology for solving problems, namely approaches, principles and methods.

Analysis of organizational management makes it possible to determine the need to use different approaches.

The systems approach to management assumes that any system or object is considered as a set of interconnected components that has an output, that is, a goal, an input, a connection with the external environment, and feedback. In such a system, the “input” is transformed into an “output”.

In terms of use integrated approach enterprise management must take into account technical, environmental, economic, organizational, social, psychological, political, demographic areas of management, as well as their relationships.

If at least one of these areas is not taken into account, then a complete solution to this problem will not be achieved. Unfortunately, in reality, as a rule, an integrated approach is not followed. Thus, in the context of the construction of new enterprises and organizations, the solution social problems is often postponed. This delays the commissioning of this facility or causes its partial use. Other examples can be given. Thus, in the process of designing new equipment, insufficient attention is paid to its environmental friendliness, which leads to the non-competitiveness of this equipment.

The integration management approach involves studying and strengthening the relationships between individual subsystems and elements of the management system, as well as between the stages of the life cycle of a management object, between individual vertical management levels, and, finally, between individual horizontal management subjects.

The marketing approach of management provides for the orientation of the management subsystem towards the consumer in the context of solving any problems. Main criteria marketing approach are:

• - improving the quality of the management object in accordance with consumer requirements;
• - saving money for the consumer by improving quality;
• - saving resources in own production due to factors of production scale, scientific and technological progress, as well as the use of a scientifically based management system.

The functional approach to enterprise management is that any need is considered as a set of functions that should be performed to satisfy it. Once functions are defined, several alternative objects are created to implement those functions. Then, one of these objects is selected that requires a minimum of total costs during the life cycle of this object per unit of its beneficial effect.

The essence of the dynamic management approach is that when it is applied, the control object is considered in its dialectical development, in its cause-and-effect relationships. Here, a subsequent retrospective analysis is carried out for 5-10 or more past years, as well as a prospective (forecast) analysis. The reproduction approach to enterprise management is focused on the constant resumption of production of this type of product in order to meet market needs. Wherein this type products must have lower total costs per unit of beneficial effect than the best similar product on the given market. The main elements of the reproductive approach are the following:

• - use of a leading comparison base when planning the renewal of this type of product;
• - saving the amount of past, living and future labor during the life cycle of a given type of product per unit of its beneficial effect;
• - consideration of the relationship between manufactured, designed and future models of this type of product;
• - reproduction of elements of the external environment proportional in quantity (mainly the macro-environment of a given country and the infrastructure of a given region);
• - integration of science and production in large organizations.

The process approach to organization management considers management functions in their interrelation. The management process is total amount all functions, that is, it is a series of continuous interrelated actions. The normative management approach consists of establishing management standards for all its subsystems. These standards should be determined by the most important elements:

• - target subsystem (it covers indicators of quality and resource intensity of products, market parameters, indicators of the organizational and technical level of production, indicators social development team organization, environmental protection indicators);
• - supporting subsystem (standards for providing employees, as well as individual divisions of the organization, with everything necessary for successful work, for fulfilling the tasks facing them, standards for the efficiency of using certain types of resources in the organization as a whole);
• - functional subsystem (standards for the quality of plans, organization of the management system, standards for the quality of accounting and control, standards for stimulating high-quality work).

The listed standards must meet the requirements of complexity, efficiency, and prospects.

As for the standards for the functioning of elements of the external environment, the organization does not control these standards; however, it must have a bank of these standards and strictly comply with them, especially legal and environmental standards.

The organization must also take part in the formation and development of a system of environmental standards.

The essence of the quantitative management approach is the transition from qualitative to quantitative assessments using mathematical and statistical methods, engineering calculations, expert assessments, point system and etc.

The administrative (directive) approach to enterprise management involves the regulation of functions, rights, responsibilities, and quality cost standards.

The main task of the behavioral approach to managing an organization is to increase the efficiency of the organization by improving the use of its labor resources. The use of behavioral science helps improve the performance of both individual employees and the organization as a whole. The fact is that as a result of the application of behavioral science to the management of an organization, individual employees are helped to understand their capabilities and creativity, which ultimately leads to increased efficiency of the organization.

The essence of the situational approach to enterprise management is that the degree of suitability of individual management methods is determined by the specific situation.

Since there are many factors influencing the activities of an organization, both internally and externally, it is impossible to find a single best way management. The most effective method in a given situation will be the one that best suits the current situation.

These are the main approaches that determine the quality and effectiveness of management decisions.

In the process of economic and financial activities of organizations, situations constantly arise when there is a need to choose one of several possible options for action. As a result of such a choice, a certain solution appears.

In order to correctly determine the effectiveness of management decisions, it is necessary to carry out separate accounting of income and expenses trade organization in the context of individual product groups. However, in practice, maintaining such records is very difficult. As a result, it is advisable to use the so-called specific quality indicators in the analysis, namely profit per 1 million rubles of turnover, as well as distribution costs per 1 million rubles of inventory.

The effectiveness of management decisions in a trade organization is manifested in a generalized way in quantitative form as an increase in the volume of trade turnover, acceleration of the turnover of goods, and a decrease in the amount of inventory.

The final financial and economic result of the execution of management decisions is manifested in an increase in the income of a trading organization and in a reduction in its expenses.

Determining the economic efficiency of management decisions, as a result of which the execution increased, and, therefore, increased, can be carried out using the following formula:

Eph = P*T = P * (Tf - Tpl),

• Eph— economic efficiency (in thousand rubles);
• P— profit per 1 million rubles of turnover (in thousand rubles);
• T— increase in trade turnover (in million rubles);
• Tf- actual trade turnover that takes place after the implementation of this management decision;
• Tpl— planned turnover (or turnover for a comparable period before the implementation of this management decision).

In the example under consideration, the economic efficiency of making and executing a management decision is expressed in a reduction in the amount (selling expenses, or commercial expenses) attributable to the balance of goods. This leads to an increase in the amount of profit received. This efficiency can be determined by the following formula:

Ef =IO*Z = IO*(Z 2 - Z 1),

• Eph— economic efficiency of this management activity (in thousand rubles);
• AND ABOUT— the amount of distribution costs per 1 million rubles of inventory (in thousand rubles);
• 3 — amount of change (decrease) in inventory (millions, rubles);
• 3 1 — the amount of inventory before the implementation of a management decision (event) (million rubles);
• 3 2 — the amount of inventory of goods after the implementation of this management decision.

In addition, the economic efficiency of the implemented management decision affected the acceleration of commodity turnover. This influence can be determined by the following formula:

Eph = Io*Ob = Io (Ob f - Ob pl),

• Eph— economic efficiency of management decisions (thousand rubles);
• And about— simultaneous value of distribution costs (thousand rubles);
• About— acceleration of goods turnover (in days);
• About pl— turnover of goods before the implementation of a management decision (in days).
• About f— turnover of goods after the implementation of a management decision (in days).

Methods for analyzing management decisions

Let's consider the procedure for applying the basic methods and techniques of analysis when assessing the effectiveness of making and executing management decisions.

Comparison method makes it possible to evaluate the activities of the organization, identify deviations of the actual values ​​of indicators from the basic values, establish the reasons for these deviations and find reserves for further improvement of the organization’s activities.

Index method used in the analysis of complex phenomena, the individual elements of which cannot be measured. As relative indicators, they are necessary to assess the degree of fulfillment of planned tasks, as well as to determine various phenomena and processes.

This method makes it possible to decompose the general indicator into deviation factors.

Balance sheet method consists in comparing interrelated indicators of an organization’s performance to identify the influence of individual factors, as well as to find reserves for improving the organization’s performance. In this case, the relationship between individual indicators is expressed in the form of equality of results obtained as a result of certain comparisons.

Elimination method, which is a generalization of the methods of index, balance sheet and chain substitutions, makes it possible to isolate the influence of a single factor on a general indicator of an organization’s performance, based on the assumption that the remaining factors acted under other equal conditions, i.e. just as planned.

Graphical method is a way to visually illustrate the activities of an organization, as well as a way to determine a number of indicators and a way to present the results of the analysis.

Functional cost analysis(FSA) is a systematic research method used in accordance with the purpose of the object being studied (processes, products) in order to increase the beneficial effect, that is, the return per unit of total costs for life cycle object.

The most important feature of functional cost analysis is to establish the feasibility of a list of functions that the designed object must perform under certain specific conditions, or to check the necessity of the functions of an existing object.

Economic and mathematical methods of analysis are used to select optimal options that determine management decisions in existing or planned economic conditions.

• assessment of the production plan developed using economic and mathematical methods;
• optimization of the production program, its distribution between workshops and individual types of equipment;
• optimization of distribution of available production resources, cutting materials, as well as optimization of norms and standards for reserves and consumption of these resources;
• optimization of the level of unification of individual component parts of the product, as well as technological equipment;
• determining the optimal size of the organization as a whole, as well as individual workshops and production areas;
• establishing the optimal range of products;
• determination of the most rational routes for in-plant transport;
• determination of the most rational periods for the operation of equipment and its repairs;
• comparative analysis of the economic efficiency of using a unit of a type of resource from the point of view optimal option management decision;
• determination of possible intra-production losses in connection with the adoption and implementation of the optimal decision.

Let's summarize this chapter. The effectiveness of an organization's functioning depends to a very large extent on the quality of management decisions. This makes it important for all responsible employees of the management apparatus, and above all heads of organizations, to acquire theoretical knowledge and practical skills in the development and implementation of optimal management decisions.

Development and adoption of management decisions- This is, as a rule, a choice of one of several alternative options. The need to make management decisions is determined by the conscious and purposeful nature of human activity. This need arises at all stages of the management process and forms part of any management function.

The nature of management decisions made is greatly influenced by the completeness and reliability of information available on a given situation. Based on this, management decisions can be made both under conditions of certainty (deterministic decisions) and under conditions of risk or uncertainty (probabilistic decisions).

Management decision making process is a cyclic sequence of actions of a management subject aimed at resolving the problems of a given organization and consisting in analyzing the situation, generating alternative options and selecting the best option from them, and then implementing the selected management decision.

The practice of preparing and executing management decisions provides numerous examples of errors at all levels of economic management. This is a consequence of many reasons, since economic development consists of large quantity various situations that require resolution.

The most important place among the reasons for the adoption and implementation of ineffective management decisions is ignorance or non-compliance with the technology for their development and organization of their implementation.

An important role is played by the cybernetic approach to the development of management decisions, which has become known as a theory of decision making. It is based on the widespread use of mathematical apparatus and modern computer technology.

1. Classification of management decisions

Describe the presented classifications of management decisions:

Based on the basis of acceptance: intuitive, based on judgment, rational;

According to the degree of impact on the object: operational, tactical and strategic;

By order of adoption: individual, collective and collegial;

According to the criterion of novelty: routine, selective, adaptive and innovative;

According to the degree of regulation: directive, guiding and recommending;

According to the style of decision-making - according to the ratio of efforts at the stage of developing alternatives and their selection: inert, cautious, balanced, risky, impulsive.

Present and characterize three more approaches to the classification of management decisions (10 classifications in total).

Give examples of each listed classification of management decisions.

The classification of management decisions according to the degree of impact on the object is presented in Fig. 1.1.

Rice. 1.1 - Classification of management decisions according to the basis for adoption

Intuitive solutionsis a choice made only on the basis of the feeling that it is right. In a complex organizational situation, thousands of choices are possible. A manager who relies solely on intuition, from a statistical point of view, has a chance of right choice without any application the logic is low.

Example:

When making a purely intuitive decision, people base it on their own feeling that their choice is correct. There is a “sixth sense” here, a kind of insight, usually visited by representatives of the highest echelon of power. Middle managers rely more on computer information and assistance. Despite the fact that intuition becomes sharper along with the acquisition of experience, the continuation of which is precisely high post, a manager who focuses only on it becomes a hostage to chance, and from a statistical point of view, his chances of making the right choice are not very high.

Decisions Based on Judgmentis a choice based on knowledge or accumulated experience. A person uses knowledge of what has happened in similar situations previously to predict the outcome of alternative choices in an existing situation. However, we note that a leader who is overly committed to judgment and accumulated experience may consciously and unconsciously avoid interaction with new technologies and developments, which leads to irrational decision making.

Example:

A decision to give the competent secretary the authority to respond to all routine correspondence without external oversight. The manager's decision on where to build a warehouse for finished products.

Rational decisionis a decision that is based on the basis of the analytical process, and is often independent of previous experience.

Stages of making a rational decision: diagnosis of the problem, formulation of restrictions and criteria for decision-making, identification of alternatives, analysis and evaluation of alternatives, final selection of an alternative, implementation of the solution, feedback, evaluation of results.

Example:

Choosing (purchasing) a car. Selecting a product market based on the conducted marketing research.

The classification of management decisions according to the degree of impact on the object is presented in Fig. 1.2.

Rice. 1.2 - Classification of management decisions according to the degree of impact on the object

Strategic management decisions- these are decisions that are made at the highest level of management for the long-term development of the organization. Such decisions are followed by the development of: a strategic plan, the production program of the organization. Strategic decisions involve fundamental changes in the organization: changing the directions of financial flows into product groups or target segments, transforming the structure, entering new regional markets, expanding or reducing activities, changing assortment policy. Strategic management decisions are made at the level of directors, vice-presidents of the company, deputy. directors, heads of production departments and workshops. In a small business, all responsibility for making strategic decisions is concentrated in the hands of the manager and his team.

Strategic are directive acts that direct, organize and motivate the collective actions of people to achieve strategic goals. Strategic planning includes:

developing policies in various areas that determine the life of the organization;

development of programs and projects, forecasting and determination of socio-economic development.

Strategic management decisions are designed to ensure that the organization fulfills its mission and, due to this, its survival in a highly competitive environment.

Example:

A car manufacturing plant is deciding whether to produce any spare parts for the cars itself or find a supplier from which to purchase them.

Operational management decisionsperform a corrective role directly during production activities enterprises, solving sudden and urgent problems.

Operational management decisions are made daily based on the conditions of production activities, resource availability, market demand, prices, social demands, events in the political, economic, social, environmental environment. Feature: operational decisions are sensitive to emerging unforeseen situations, and therefore they are called situational.

Subject of operational decisions: organizational measures, urgent orders, replenishment of emerging losses, damages, replenishment of missing material, labor, financial resources, adjustment of planned, program activities, obtaining current benefits.

Programmed decisions have the greatest weight in the totality of operational management decisions, since operational decisions are fleeting, urgent, and require the fastest possible execution and immediate response to the situation.

Example:

Repairing a broken machine in the workshop. Repairing a computer in the office. Software installation.

Tactical management decisions, as a rule, are focused on the short and medium term and problems of a production and technical nature.

Tactical management decisions are associated with medium-term problems, the development of a line of action for a relatively short period of time in accordance with the developing situation in production and markets. Tactical decisions are a way of concretizing a strategy, translating it into specific measures to be implemented during a certain planning, program period.

Orientation of tactical management decisions: as a rule, such decisions are aimed at achieving intermediate goals, solving problems that contribute to promotion and general goals.

Example:

Decisions of the company (manager) on the terms on which the enterprise will agree on supplies necessary equipment(software).

Operational and tactical decisions are related to the implementation of current goals and objectives. In terms of time, they are designed for a period not exceeding a month.

The classification of management decisions according to the order of adoption is presented in Fig. 1.3.

Rice. 1.3 - Classification of management decisions by order of adoption

Collegial decisionis a decision made by a group of managers and specialists.

As a rule, decisions are made by the head of the organization in agreement with leading top managers and specialists, collectively. This happens in most companies. The manager delegates parallel powers or uses the technique of mandatory approval, which is stated in administrative documents as “agreed”. With mandatory approvals, responsibility for making significant decisions partially rests with the managers who assume such authority. Parallel powers increase the responsibility and rights of managers, and the decision becomes collective. For example, many companies use concurrent authorities to control financial expenditures, and large purchases require two or three executive signatures.

Collective decisions are usually made at business meetings and during the work of commissions by leading managers and specialists. At such meetings there is already a known balance of power, which significantly influences the management result, the decision.

Example:

The manager attracted external law firm for advice on any legal issues.

Collective (democratic) decisions- these are decisions made by the majority of the organization’s employees, jointly by the work collective or by a small group. Unlike collegial ones, democratic decisions are a clear expression of the will of the majority of members of the work collective, small or large. Such decisions are made through secret voting, using expert assessment methods, for example, nominal group technique, Japanese ring techniques. The use of such methods is possible with a high level of staff motivation, the use of a democratic leadership style, and a developed and transparent corporate culture.

Collective decisions are also made when significant problems and issues that affect the entire staff are raised.

Example:

Election of a manager by competition, introduction of a new remuneration system, etc.

Individual management solutionsThese are decisions that are made by the manager alone. Small business organizations have a small number of management levels and a high risk of losing competitive status. Such an organization is led by an entrepreneur who bears full responsibility for its further functioning in unstable market conditions. An entrepreneur is afraid to delegate authority on financial and other significant issues to his subordinates and makes decisions alone. The positive aspect of an individual solution is its creative, extraordinary nature.

The disadvantages of individual decisions appear when they acquire an authoritarian character. The manager usurps power, individually manages resources, determines the organization's personnel policy and puts pressure on subordinates. Decisions made by the manager alone allow the organization to remain in the market for some time and be successful. However, in the future, the leadership style used by the leader hinders the development of the organization. A leader must be able to maneuver and be flexible, use the art of delegating decision-making powers to other people in the organization.

Example:

The manager decided to prepare presentation material for the meeting on his own, without resorting to the help or cooperation of employees.

The classification of management decisions according to the criterion of novelty is presented in Fig. 1.4.

Rice. 1.4 - Classification of management decisions according to the criterion of novelty

Routine solutionsare adopted in accordance with the existing program, the manager must identify the situation and take responsibility for starting certain actions. Difficulties can arise here if the manager is incompetent, misinterprets existing indications of a particular situation, acts illogically, or shows indecisiveness. A leader who correctly perceives the situation, draws the right conclusions, acts intelligently and controls the consequences, achieves what is expected of him. At this level, no creativity is required since all procedures are pre-prescribed.

Example:

Where to place the computer on the desktop.

At selective solutionsa certain amount of initiative and freedom of action is required, but within certain limits. Selective decisions imply that the manager evaluates the merits of a whole range of possible solutions and tries to choose those actions that best suit the given problem and are the most effective and economical.

Effectiveness depends on the manager's ability to select the course of action with the highest probability and whether it turns out to be acceptable, economical and effective.

Example:

Selection (rather than development of a new) system of motivation and incentives for personnel.

Adaptive solutionscause difficulties, since here the manager is looking for a new solution to a known problem, must be able to abandon the usual, but already outdated approach to the problem and develop a creative solution. The success of a leader depends on his personal initiative and ability to make a breakthrough into the unknown. Such solutions provide an answer that could have existed before, but in a different form. A manager is looking for a new solution to a known problem.

Example:

Innovative solutionsare the most complex, the leader needs to find ways to understand completely unexpected problems, and solving such problems requires new ideas and methods, the ability to think in new ways, the ability to creatively solve the problem by discussing and using creative ideas other specialists.

A manager must be able to understand completely unexpected problems, the solution of which requires the manager to develop thinking in relation to changing conditions. It is possible that solving today's complex problems may require the creation of a new branch of science or technology.

Development of a new (innovative) approach to organizing and conducting conference calls, for example, via IP telephony or Skype.

Classification of management decisions by content in Fig. 1.5.

Rice. 1.5 - Classification of management decisions by content

Solutions with quantitative characteristics, are accepted on the basis of mathematical and statistical methods. The assessment of quality and efficiency in this case is simplified, since the achieved level is compared with the planned one.

Example:

Reduction of finished product defects by 5%.

Solutions that are not quantitative, are subjective in nature, as they are determined by the personality of the subject receiving them. Assessing their quality is complex and quite controversial, since it is also subjective.

Example:

Carrying out the procedure for rotation (rearrangement) of personnel of the enterprise

The classification of management decisions by degree of regulation is presented in Fig. 1.6.

Rice. 1.6 - Classification of management decisions by degree of regulation

Policy decisionsmust be carried out and do not imply any initiative. They establish a clear relationship between certain parameters and specific solution options.

Example:

Making a decision on the introduction of information and communication technologies in the field municipal government will be directive for those responsible for its implementation.

Orienting solutionsdetermine possible options for employee activities when certain conditions occur.

Example:

The decision will be a guide for archive workers, as it tells them that soon the work of many of them will not be in demand. At the same time, it provides for the training of specialists to work with municipal information system.

Example:

The same decision for different categories of performers can be directive, guiding and recommending.

The classification of management decisions by decision-making style is presented in Fig. 1.7.

Rice. 1.7 - Classification of management decisions by decision-making style

The nature of the development and implementation of management decisions strongly depends on the personal characteristics of a person.

Balanced Solutionsaccepted by managers who are attentive and critical to their actions, put forward hypotheses and their testing. They usually have an initial idea formulated before making a decision.

Example:

Despite the complaints of some members of the team against their immediate supervisor, the director does not apply sanctions against him, since the complaints turned out to be rumors spread on purpose.

Impulsive decisionsare accepted by managers who easily generate a wide variety of ideas in unlimited quantities, but are unable to properly test, clarify and evaluate them. Therefore, decisions turn out to be insufficiently substantiated and reliable; they are made “at once”, “in jerks”.

Example:

Dismissal of a manager against whom there are unverified complaints from his subordinates.

Inert solutions- the result of a careful search. In them, control and clarifying actions predominate over the generation of ideas, so it is difficult to detect originality, brilliance, and innovation in such decisions. They weakly motivate staff to implement them.

Example:

Conducting an internal audit

Risky decisionsare accepted without careful justification of actions by a leader who is confident in his abilities. Typically, such managers have good support in the form of constantly supporting superior managers or subordinates. They may not be afraid of any dangers.

Example:

Careful decisionsare characterized by the manager’s thorough assessment of all options, a hypercritical approach to business, big amount approvals. Such management decisions are effective in resolving problems relating to human life and their environment.

Example:

The decision to increase travel expenses for the company's lawyer after conducting all possible comprehensive analysis of his presence and absence at preliminary hearings on various lawsuits and the consequences of these trips.

The classification of management decisions according to the content of the management process is presented in Fig. 1.8.

Rice. 1.8 - Classification of management decisions according to the content of the management process

Economic solutionsassociated with the management system, necessary for increasing the economic efficiency of the organization’s activities, profitability, payback and liquidity of assets. How best to manage resources, make the enterprise profitable, increase profits - these and other questions will confront the manager making economic decisions.

Economic management decisions are manifested in the fact that the development and implementation of any management decision requires financial, material and other costs. Therefore, every management decision has a real cost.

The implementation of an effective management decision should bring direct or indirect income to the company, and an erroneous decision or a decision misunderstood by subordinates leads to losses and sometimes to the cessation of the company's activities.

Example:

If a manager decides to fire a negligent employee, the latter may suffer greatly, and if he does not fire or take other measures, the entire organization may suffer.

Social solutions- These are decisions that affect the organization's social structure, personnel, corporate culture, climate and shared values. Social decisions can be related to optimizing the work of personnel, improving the system of motivation and social support for employees, the image of the organization in society, and the implementation of the mission.

Example:

Increasing wages, introducing environmentally friendly equipment, improving sanitary conditions, strengthening safety requirements, resolving conflicts.

Organizational decisions- these are decisions related to management methods, ways to achieve goals. Such decisions are an integral part of the management process.

The essence is that company personnel are involved in this work. To work effectively, it is necessary to form an efficient team, develop instructions and regulations, vest workers with powers, rights, duties and responsibilities, establish a control system, allocate the necessary resources, including information, provide workers with the necessary equipment and technology, and constantly coordinate their work.

Example:

Organize workers to complete the task, redistribute functions and powers, and hold a general meeting.

Technical solutions- these are operational decisions that are necessary to ensure labor and production processes, supply the necessary resources, materials, and information.

Example:

Install software in a department, replace a broken machine, pay travel expenses, send an employee to an important production area.

The classification of management decisions according to the method of fixing the management process is presented in Fig. 1.9.

Rice. 1.9 - Classification of management decisions according to the method of fixing the management process

Management decisions can be expressed in in writingHow administrative documents in the form of orders and instructions. Managers provide written decisions for legal review and subsequently for execution.

Example:

Order for hiring a new employee

In extreme circumstances, the oral form is used. The disadvantage of this method is that performers sometimes distort the content, and not always consciously, and interpret the decision in their own way.

Verbal management decisionsalso have legal force, and they can be appealed in court if there are at least two people who heard these decisions.

Oral management decisions occur during meetings, conferences and business conversations. Meetings and deliberations are collective events (public or involving a wide range of participants); conversations are mostly conducted individually or with a small number of people gathered.

Example:

Verbal order to establish a work schedule on a day off

Electronic solutions involves recording decisions on electronic media. This method allows you to use all the capabilities of information and communication technologies. After acceptance Federal Law No. 149-FZ of July 27, 2006 “On information, information technology and on information protection" was widely disseminated electronic method fixing decisions.

Example:

Providing by a manager to a subordinate through Email documentation for negotiations

In the practice of enterprises from the position legal registration management decisions The most common are written management decisions.

The classification of management decisions by information processing method is presented in Fig. 1.10.

Rice. 1.9 - Classification of management decisions by information processing method

Algorithmic solutionsinvolve strict formalization of the implementation of procedures and operations based on rules, algorithms, formulas, and statistical data.

Example:

Calculation of the economic efficiency of new production should be carried out using developed algorithms.

But in management, not everything can be measured quantitatively. Something is assessed qualitatively. You can process and evaluate information based on intuition, generalizations, ideas, experience, and associations. Through conversation, discussion, and asking leading questions, you can obtain new information from a client or partner. Such solutions are called heuristic.

Example:

Receiving information from a partner about discounts received on office paper from the same supplier stationery.

2. Target and processor technologies

management business processor

Target technologies

Provide examples of the use of each target technologies both in the field of business and in the field of educational and extracurricular activities at the university. Provide at least two examples for each area.

Processor technologies

Provide at least two examples of the use of each processor technology.

Target technologies

Target technologies are technologies based on the priority of goals over situations. Target technologies focus decisions on achieving a goal, rather than eliminating disturbing influences.

The classification of target technologies is presented in Fig. 2.1.

Regulatory technologyconsists of issuing tasks (goals, tasks) for execution, indicating the means and their possible limitations, recommended methods and the estimated time for their implementation. The technology provides for strict control of the process of approaching the target.

The professionalism of completing a task is determined by the qualifications of the manager who issued the task and the performer. This implies strict control over the positive dynamics of the task completion process.

Regulatory technology can lead to two main results:

achieving tangible positive results from the process of achieving the goal;

lack of significant positive results within an acceptable time (treading water).

Regulatory technology involves development by the head ultimate goal management and strategies with possible limitations of various resources (material, human, financial, etc.). In this case, the goal will definitely be achieved, but within a time frame that is difficult to determine in advance. Achieving the goal is guaranteed only with strict internal or external control of the progress of the process of realizing the set goals.

the time for completing the goal or its component tasks should not be precisely specified (the process of achieving the goal itself is important);

there may be a significant and unpredictable limitation of resources (financial, technological, raw materials, etc.);

innovative and long-term nature of developments;

The estimated time to achieve the goal is over 1 year.

This technology is based on statistical methods, fuzzy set theory, and the theory of developing solutions under conditions of uncertainty. The authorship of the program and the results obtained belongs to the director and performer.

Example:

Writing a book. Preparation and writing of student work (graduation project, course work and etc.).

Drawing up a business plan.

Initiative-target technologyis based on issuing tasks without specifying the means and methods for their implementation and is designed for an initiative and professional performer.

Initiative-target technology involves the development by the manager only of the final goal of the task for an employee or department, as well as the deadline for completion, without indicating the mechanism for achieving it. In this case, the goal may not be achieved for some reason, it may be achieved within the stipulated time frame or earlier, or it may be achieved outside the established period.

Initiative-target technology gives great scope for initiative decisions of subordinates.

Basic conditions for using this technology:

the staff of the organization or its division is no more than 10 people;

the time required to complete the assignment should not exceed one month from the date of its issuance;

high professionalism of the staff or great confidence in them on the part of the manager;

production of new goods, services, information or knowledge;

the presence of stable informal relationships in the team.

The professionalism of the task is determined by the qualifications of the task performer, and the qualifications of the manager play a secondary role. Technology does not guarantee achievement of the goal.

Example:

In the process of completing the task assigned by the manager to the employee, the specialist quit, which resulted in a significant reduction in the necessary resources.

For decreasing occupational diseases The company's management decided to purchase technology that does not use asbestos as fillers for building blocks, and they decided to “freeze” the construction of a new technological building.

Software-targeted technologyused most often in organizations. It consists of issuing tasks (goals, tasks) for execution, indicating the means, methods and time for their implementation, there are instructions on external or internal control intermediate states of this execution.

The professionalism of completing a task is determined by the qualifications of the manager who issued the task, and the qualifications of the performer play a secondary role. Software-targeted technology usually guarantees the achievement of the goal.

The use of software-targeted technology can lead to three main results:

achieving the goal within a given time frame with acceptable deviations from the given intermediate values;

achieving the goal within a given time frame with significant deviations from the specified intermediate values;

consistent failure to achieve a goal within a given time frame.

This technology involves the development by the manager of management goals, means and methods for their implementation, as well as the timing and states of intermediate process values. If any given intermediate value is not achieved, then additional resources are allocated for its implementation; if the given intermediate value exceeds the planned one, then part of the resources is transferred to other needs and the goal will be achieved within the stipulated time frame.

Program-target technology is based on modern knowledge, economic and mathematical methods and information technologies.

Basic conditions for using this technology:

certainty and availability of management and production resources;

clearly expressed separation of management and production;

a large volume of standard procedures, situations and solutions.

Example:

When developing a political platform for a political organization in which its leader is the ideologist and conductor of a set of activities. In this case, the qualifications of the performer play a secondary role, and the professionalism of the task is determined by the qualifications of the manager who issued the task.

Development and implementation, for example, of the Federal Target Program “State Border of the Russian Federation”

Processor technologies

For successful implementation, each target technology for developing management decisions has its own set of processor technologies that represent the mechanism for implementing the target technologies.

The processors include six control technologies (see Fig. 2.2).

Rice. 2.1 - Classification of target technologies

Results-based management technologybased on the priority of final results over planning and forecasting. The main function performed by managers is coordination (adjustment) of actions and decisions depending on the results obtained.

This technology is well implemented for medium and small organizations or divisions in which:

the time between decision-making and the result of their implementation is minimal (hours, several days);

there are no insurmountable difficulties in quickly acquiring the required resources or returning unclaimed ones;

the professionalism of the head of the organization or the project manager is quite high;

The nature of production is predominantly mechanized.

The basis of this technology is a business plan and developments for making management decisions under conditions of possible uncertainties. It is known that the most necessary factors for developing an effective management decision are either unknown or precisely indeterminable.

This technology is the cheapest among other technologies, since it does not require the development of detailed plans and the calculation of funds for the implementation of solutions.

Example:

1. solution and writing independent work on the exam.

Planning a report on the annual sales volume of products (services).

Management technology based on needs and interestsis based on the priority of interpersonal relationships over other means and methods for forming interaction between employees participating in the implementation of the goal.

Interaction between a manager and a subordinate when implementing this technology can only occur if the impact affects the needs and interests of both the manager and the subordinate. All other options lead to resistance from the subordinate.

This technology is effectively implemented in large and medium-sized organizations in small regions (cities, towns, etc.), where the organization’s activities significantly affect the municipal infrastructure.

The number of personnel involved in this technology is not limited. The main function performed by managers is planning and organizing interaction between participants in the labor process; a positive result is guaranteed.

Example:

Creation of an enterprise in cities and towns with developed textile industry, where one large organization gives birth to a number of smaller service enterprises.

Opening of a new city library in a place where there is no public transport

Control technology through constant checks and instructionsis based on the priority of control and strict personnel management over other means and methods for forming interaction between employees participating in the implementation of the goal. Control and strict management are justified by the fact that in this case a person better realizes his needs for self-expression, self-display, stability and order.

This technology is effectively implemented in small organizations in which the authority and professionalism of the manager is beyond doubt, especially in new knowledge-intensive organizations, educational institutions or in enterprises where consultant-managers work on a contractual basis.

Example:

1. Conducting testing, certification, exams, testing the knowledge of students by the teacher.

Choreography for the play. In this case, the group leader (choreographer) is the authority who regulates and controls every movement of the dancer (actor).

Control technology in exceptional casesis based on the priority of the professionalism of performers or proven and well-executed production technology over other means and methods for the successful completion of assigned or selected tasks.

This technology is effectively implemented in small organizations that work either using strictly regulated technology or in organizations with a trust (functional) management structure.

In this structure, the manager exercises linear influence in all areas production process in administrative functions, and in economic, technological and other functions, provides the required assistance to subordinates and colleagues. The leader is in a situation: an equal among equals. The contractor can also transfer part of his work to a lower level and act in relation to him as a line manager and as an adviser.

Example:

1. The accountant fulfills the instructions of the chief accountant to prepare and submit reports to the director of the enterprise.

Instruction from the teacher to the student to carry out public lesson.

Control technology based on “artificial intelligence”is based on the priority of proven practice, statistics and modern economic and mathematical methods, implemented in the form of knowledge bases or databases using modern information computer technologies.

This technology is especially effective for any organizations with a large volume of standard complex procedures.

Example:

Filtering email using a computer. In this case, the most important letters are first submitted for consideration to the head of the enterprise.

Maintaining logs of student progress in universities.

Management technology based on the activation of personnel activitiesis based on the priority of incentives and rewards for the employee over other means and methods for the successful completion of assigned or selected tasks. It is mainly effective when manual production, when labor productivity and quality of products are mainly determined by the mood, psychology and health of the employee, as well as the socio-psychological climate in the team. The number of employees is unlimited. Technology requires a system for monitoring the effect of incentives and rewards on the activities of each employee or team.

This technology influences the satisfaction of the needs and interests of employees not directly from the manager, as in management technology based on needs and interests, but through the decisions of the employee himself. Technology requires high level vocational training HR specialists.

Example:

Incentivizing an employee by giving him a responsible task or paying remuneration in cash and (or) commodity forms.

Writing essays, independent study of educational literature as a student’s motivation to receive automatic final grades for the semester (year).

List of used literature

1.Abryutina M.S., Grachev A.V. Analysis of the financial and economic activities of the enterprise. - M.: Publishing House “Business and Service”, 2010. - 256 p.

2.Baldin K.V., Vorobiev S.N., Utkin V.B. Management decisions: Textbook. - M.: Dashkov and K, 2007. - 496 p.

.Batrick R. Techniques for making effective management decisions: Textbook. - 2nd ed. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2010. - 416 p.

.Vertakova Yu.V., Kozyeva I.A., Kuzbozhev E.N. Management decisions: Textbook. - M.: KnoRus, 2009. - 352 p.

.Vertakova Yu.V. Management decisions: development and choice: Textbook. - M.: KNORUS, 2010. - 422 p.

.Garkusha N.M. Models and methods of decision making in analysis and audit: Textbook / Ed. N.M. Garkushi, O.V. Tsukanova, O.O. Goroshanskaya. - 2nd ed. - K.: Knowledge, 2012. - 591 p.

.Golubkov E.P. Technology of management decision making: Textbook. - M.: Delo, 2010. - 544 p.

.Zlobina N.V. Management decisions: Textbook. - Tambov: TSTU, 2007. - 80 p.

.Kokoreva T.A. System analysis of decision-making procedures. - M.: Timber Industry, 2009. - 290 p.

.Litvak B.G. Development of management decisions: Textbook. - 3rd ed. - M.: Delo, 2011. - 288 p.

.Litvak B.G. Development of a management solution. - 4th ed., rev. - M.: Delo, 2012. - 392 p.

.Mashchenko V.E. Systematic corporate governance: Textbook. - M.: Sirin, 2013. - 251 p.

.Raizberg B.A., Lozovsky L.Sh., Starodubtseva E.B. Modern economic dictionary. - 5th ed., revised. and additional - M.: INFRA-M, 2007. - 495 p.

.Smirnov E.A. Development of management decisions: Textbook. - 2nd ed., add. - M.: 2012. - 271 p.

.Smorchkov A.V. Development of management decisions: Textbook. - Part 2. - Bryansk: BSTU, 2011. - 44 p.

.Travin V. Preparation and implementation of management decisions: Textbook. - M.: Delo, 2008. - 80 p.

.Fatkhutdinov R.A. Management decisions: Textbook. - 5th ed. - M.: INFRA-M, 2008. - 314 p.

.Shemetov P.V., Radionov V.V., Cherednikova L.E., Petukhova S.V. Management decisions: Textbook. - 2nd ed., add. and revision - M.: Omega-L, 2012. - 400 p.

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