Pressure in the chamber rdt. Methodology for calculating rdt. Usolkin. Marching space rocket propellers

There are various organizations of white racists in the USA: “Ku Klux Klan”, “White Aryan Resistance”, “Aryan Brotherhood”, “Aryan Republican Army”, “Christian Identity”, “World Church of the Creator”, “Aryan Congress of Nations”, “Nationalist Right Party”, “National Socialist Party of the USA”, “National Socialist Party of White People”, etc. In total, according to US intelligence services, at least 67 different racist and neo-fascist organizations operated in the country.

Among the neo-pagan groups, the armed cultists of Odin are of interest: the White House Network and Votan’s Volk, led by David Lane. The White House Network now promotes an Odinist worldview among young people and the white population of America. The organization publishes a journal dedicated to research in the field of Celtic and Runic art. “Votan’s Volk” has its own publishing house, which publishes books under the motto: “We must defend the very existence of our people and preserve the future for our white children.” The following basic principles of Odinism, shared by activists, can be identified: “1) We recognize Odin (Wotan) as the All-Father of the white race and the driving force of the Aryans in the world. 2) White humanity is moving forward both individually and collectively. 3) Our life consists not only of joys, but also of struggles. We recognize both. 4) The racial and cultural heritage of our race is the most sacred thing we possess, and which we are obliged to protect and preserve for the sake of the future. 5) Community of race is our highest value. 6) Self-improvement of white people is a guarantee of a white future. 7) Acquaintance with wisdom is the highest virtue for a white man. 8) Love of truth, self-sacrifice, courage, loyalty, service to truth and beauty - mandatory requirements to the white man."

The Ku Klux Klan (KKK), which arose back in 1865, is currently fragmented into many small, uninfluential organizations that interact with Nazis and skinheads, not exceeding the number of 10-17 thousand people. The movement's members are predominantly middle-aged workers. There are groups of clanists in England and Canada. The “New Ku Klux Klan” took shape in the 70s - 80s. XX century At this time he experienced his third rebirth. Between 1975 and 1979 the number of members of the organization increased from 6.5 thousand people to 10 thousand people. The number of potential supporters - those who read the literature published by the Klan and attended its rallies, but were not officially registered members - was estimated at 75 thousand people.

The KKK's ideological program is based on three central concepts: patriotism, Americanism and white supremacy. The most famous groups of Ku Klux Klansmen: “Knights of the Ku Klux Klan of Carolina”, “Knights of the Confederacy”, “Order”, “White Patriot Party”, “Union of White Knights of the Ku Klux Klan”.



“Aryan Nations” (AN, Aryan Nations; Church of Christian Aryan Nations; Church of Jesus Christ Christian; USA) is the largest organization of white racists. Created in 1974. Unites numerous racist groups that consider representatives of European nations as the lost tribe of Israel; have a sharply negative attitude towards Jews (accusing them of Satanism) and blacks (as incapable of independent

management). The US federal government regards it as a Zionist occupation government run by Israel. They are oriented towards Christian fundamentalism. As a political goal, the AN puts forward the need to expel all representatives of national minorities and create an Aryan state on the territory of the five northwestern states. The founder of NA is Richard Girnt Butler, the ideologist is Dr. Wesley Swift (died 1970). Other leaders: Carl Franklin, Louis Bahm, Bruce Bedsworth, Floyd Cochran. The headquarters is in Idaho. The organization unites 500 activists and from 6 to 15 thousand supporters. AN organizes bank robberies, explosions, murders, etc. Arrested NA activists agitate in prisons, seek to recruit new members, declare the need to destroy members of the government, and develop urban guerrilla warfare tactics. In 1987, militants carried out 5 explosions in Idaho, causing minor damage. A number of leaders were accused of anti-government conspiracy: they tried to receive funding and weapons from foreign countries. NA maintains contacts with right-wing radical, neo-fascist and Christian fundamentalist organizations: the Ku Klux Klan and the Minutemen (“Montana State Militia”, “Nevada State Volunteers”), groups “Mountain Church”, “Teutonic Unity”, “Euro-American Union” ", "Aryan Brotherhood", a foreign organization - the National Socialist German Workers' Party, the Christian Defense League. NA organizes discussions with Louis Farrakhan's Nation of Islam on the best way creation of two racially pure states. The ideological principles of NA are published in the books: “Calling Our Nation”, “National Chronicle”, “The Way”. Financing is carried out from our own funds.

"Aryan Nations" are associated with other white supremacist groups wearing common name– “Identity Christians.” The Christian idea in the broadest sense is in decline on the right, but this is not the case for Identity Christians. Christian Identity pastors spread seeds of racial segregation and hatred throughout the American continent, sometimes without emphasizing whom they themselves hate more. They see their main ideological basis in the Bible. But what could American racists find in it? Racologists gave the Bible a “second wind.” Identity Christians identify themselves with the first white men who held sway in ancient times. The world is divided into the children of Adam - the White Adamites and his descendants - the White people, or as they are called “true Israelites” (please do not confuse them with Jews and Jews). The once white ancestors rebelled against their sinfully fallen neighbors and children of the Devil - the Jews and their god, and then, hiding from the persecution of the Jews, settled in European countries (the main tribe settled in England). The servants of Satan took over their land and began to persecute the white descendants of Adam everywhere. Hence the physiological phobia of this Christian denomination follows. Here are some ideological points of the Church of Identity Christians, united in the union "Aryan Nations": 1) NA is a white racial geopolitical and geopolitical movement fighting for the restoration of white Aryan power in full; 2) AN is racial and national, since our race is our nation, every white person is a member of the Aryan Race, wherever he is; 3) AN - professes positive Christianity, and adheres to the natural laws of life given by God: 4) AN - progressive, since it fights for the restoration of the rights of the White Race and the fulfillment of its mission; 5) AN is the hope that the death sentence of our race will be reversed, and the laws of God will heal the people; 6) AN - recognizes that race creates the state, not the state creates the race; 7) AN - recognizes that the culture of a race can only exist through pure blood.

The philosophy of the Aryan Nations union is expressed in the following theses: “A nation is a racial, cultural, spiritual community of people. Race is the blood and soul of a nation. Every individual is part of the nation. The individual lives not for himself, but for his posterity and his race. Man is the brain and seed of a nation. A woman is the heart and the earth. Old people are the wisdom of the nation. Family is the basis of the clan, without which there is no future. Children are the key to the prosperity of a race; they are the meaning and purpose of its existence. Nature is the unwritten law of God. Social justice - the structure of Aryan law, comes from the commandments of God. Race and blood are eternal."

The Aryan Nations is currently led by Pastor Richard Butler, a former member of the terrorist group TNE ORDER. This organization merged with armed "hate groups" from the KKK and neo-Nazis. The Aryan Nations are strong proponents of war and aggression in all areas of human activity. They have armed groups throughout America waiting for orders to persecute and kill Satan's servants and racial opponents. Christ, as understood by Identity Christians, is not a harmless savior of everyone and everything, but a racial inquisitor. The followers of Pastor Butler are waiting, like manna from heaven, for the Apocalypse, during which they will conquer their racially pure paradise with arms in hand. Identity Christians interact with right-wing radicals in other countries. They spread their influence to Europe and Australia.

Other radical white organizations: - Groups that have activists throughout the country and claim that white Anglo-Saxons are the true heirs of the “lost tribe” of Israel, that they will be the only ones who will be able to survive the coming war between the races. - Nationalists (National Democratic Front of Harry Gallo), who advocate the complete separation of the two races, and in this they often unite with black nationalists who share similar ideas. - National Socialists, such as Tom Metzger, the leader of the White Aryan Resistance, who reject capitalism and consider themselves defenders of the white working class. - Skinheads are neo-Nazi groups of teenagers, whom far-right ideologists call “the vanguard of the fight for the ideals of the race.” - Supporters of the Christian Patriotic Defense League, who are constantly engaged in military and political training of their members. - Members of the Committee for the Independence of the States, who believe that real power should be in the hands of local leaders, and they consider representatives of the Federal Government as their mortal enemies.

Thus, both the above and other similar organizations do not strive for a sharp increase in the number of their members, because they believe that the success of any revolution depends primarily on the activities of a small group of people sincerely devoted to it and competently carried out propaganda work in the means mass media. At the same time, racists do not avoid attracting representatives of various segments of the population into their ranks. Thus, the most active members of the Aryan Nations group are prisoners. In the newspaper “Put”, specially published for them, they are called nothing less than “political prisoners of the Zionist occupation government.” These people, whose total number is approaching 2 thousand people, are ideal candidates for membership in such radical groups. Firstly, they have already once demonstrated their willingness to act in spite of prohibitions and persecution, and, secondly, after their release, they willingly become the most devoted members of the organizations that provided them with moral, ideological and financial support during their imprisonment.

Other, most desirable members of such organizations are traditionally teenagers (Aryan Youth Movement). Leaders of the neo-Nazi movement also regularly visit university campuses in an attempt to interest young people in Nazi ideology.

In most cases, American white ultras who profess the idea of ​​racial superiority are distinguished by good armament, ideological training and an extremely negative attitude towards state system. The negative attitude towards the state reflected the old ideas of the freemen of the Wild West, which were continued in gangster traditions. This feature distinguishes American white ultras from European neo-Nazis. The US government is conducting a targeted fight against extremism. As early as 1988, 17 US states passed laws prohibiting any military training other than that conducted by official authorities, since such activities contribute to the disruption of order and lawfulness.

MOSCOW, October 9 – RIA Novosti, Igor Gashkov. Racial clashes are not off the agenda in the United States. The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) has released a report that lists "black racial identity extremism" for the first time among nine "disruptive threats" directly threatening America. Intelligence officers analyzed cases of attacks by lone black terrorists on whites and identified a new trend. Police officers are becoming victims of crimes motivated by black-white hatred, something that did not happen even at the height of racial unrest in the 1970s.

© AP Photo/Gerald Herbert

© AP Photo/Gerald Herbert

New extremists attack the US

The appearance of the FBI report on the participation of black extremists in disrupting intercommunal peace coincided with the unrest in the American city of Charlottesville in August 2017, but the analytical note was published only now. On the eve of the clashes that divided supporters and opponents of the removal of a statue of 19th-century general Robert E. Lee, who advocated the preservation of slavery, intelligence analysts felt it necessary to warn their leadership about the danger posed by black radicals. At the same time, for the first time in American practice, the very concept of “extremism based on black racial identity” (BIE - black identity extremism) was introduced into circulation. Until mid-2017, such an abbreviation was unknown in the United States.

The change in the language used by intelligence agencies is a significant event in itself. The authors of the report attempted to explain why the introduction of a new term corresponds to the changed realities of the United States. “The FBI considered the alternative hypothesis that revenge-motivated retaliatory violence was not ideologically motivated but was simply driven by hostility toward police with racial tension used as justification, but found this to be implausible,” the text reads. There, the authors acknowledge that cases of racially motivated violence against blacks have occurred in the United States before, but between 1994 and 2014 they significantly declined and only resumed in the last three years. A new black extremism has emerged that is deliberate in nature and finds expression in calculated acts of revenge, the victims of which are predominantly law enforcement officers.

As a typical example of a crime motivated by racial hatred, intelligence experts cite the 2016 massacre committed by former soldier Micah Johnson, who shot five police officers, all of whom were white. Johnson, who said he was taking revenge on law enforcement for their crimes, “was influenced by the ideology of black extremism, which pushed him to action,” the report says. Johnson himself spoke openly about hating whites. The FBI thus admitted that the beliefs of the black criminal contained elements of anti-white racism.

© AP Photo/Noah Berger


© AP Photo/Noah Berger

Black and white: is there equality between types of racism?

Scientists: African Americans are more likely to be hit by teachers in US schoolsTeachers and educators in US schools where corporal punishment is allowed are more likely to prescribe it to African-American children and children with developmental delays or disabilities.

The publication of the report, designed to inform Americans about the emergence of a new threat, was critically received by the United States media and the expert community. Commentators who disagree with the FBI note the divisions that exist among radicalized blacks and question the need for a separate new term to denote the intolerance of African Americans toward their white compatriots. Supporters of left-liberal values ​​link the new turn in the FBI's activities towards investigating the "black threat" with relapses of racism. There is a widespread view that by highlighting the dangers of black extremists, the FBI is allegedly trying to divert attention from white radicals, who are said to commit crimes more often than their black antagonists.

The election of US President Donald Trump in 2016 led to changes in internal regulations intelligence services. The new owner of the White House ordered the FBI to change its priorities so that, instead of primarily countering “white extremism,” it would focus on the fight against Islamic extremism. Despite the fact that relations between the intelligence service and the owner of the White House remain cool - in the spring of 2017, Trump fired the head of the FBI, James Comey - critics of the president argue that under him, vigilance towards acts of white racism has decreased.

Trump’s statements during the unrest in Charlottesville in August 2017 added fuel to the fire: the president spoke about the danger various types radicalism that refused to blame racial tensions on whites alone. The response to the US President was a massive campaign by Democrats and their sympathizers in the press.

The publication of the FBI report on the “black threat” coincided with increased tension in Charlottesville, where the conflict, as it is now becoming clear, has not been completely resolved. On October 8, white activists accused of racism marched with lit torches to a statue of General Robert E. Lee. The monument is destined for demolition, but in the name of pacifying passions, a compromise solution was temporarily adopted: the statue remains in place, but was covered with a veil.

White's burden. Extraordinary racism Andrey Mikhailovich Burovsky

Racism white and black

Racism white and black

In general, when people talk about racism, they usually mean white racism. Was he? Was. There were legal restrictions on the rights of blacks compared to whites, apartheid, segregation, lynchings, the Ku Klux Klan, “Whites Only” signs on benches and at the entrance to restaurants. Everything was. But in today's world this is practically not the case. Moreover, the denial of this white racism is most consistent in countries where it was strongest and lasted the longest.

In Paris, I saw with my own eyes a restaurant called “The Cheerful Negro’s.” In the USA, such a name is absolutely impossible - to the same extent that a restaurant with the name “At the Merry Zhidka” or “At the Merry Armenian” is impossible in Russia. But in France there was practically no racism, which is why such a name is quite possible.

In 1973, the UN General Assembly officially called the apartheid regime in South Africa “criminal” and adopted international convention"On suppressing the crime of apartheid and punishing it."

The world press moaned so loudly about racism in South Africa that this unfortunate country became a gloomy symbol - worse than the Third Reich.

At the same time, facts that were very inconvenient for “fighters against discrimination” were carefully hidden from the general public. Under apartheid in South Africa, each year colleges graduated a gigantic number of black students, by African standards: three times more than all the black students of all African countries combined. In South Africa, every black person was required to complete primary school.

South Africa's largest black hospital - the largest hospital in Africa - performed more than 1,800 complex surgeries every year.

Not a word was ever said that one of the most acute problems of South Africa was the illegal immigration of blacks from other African states: blacks fled in droves to racist South Africa from happy independent countries.

What about manifestations of black racism? In South Africa and Zimbabwe there are many manifestations of this racism, including rape and murder of whites. White farmers were and are being killed precisely on racial grounds - as whites. The official “black” authorities in these countries do not promote racism, but they also do nothing to protect whites. Much like in the United States in the Southern states, the authorities turned a blind eye to everyday racism and even to the activities of lynchings.

An attempt at a “white” protest meeting is simply stopped: the police open fire to kill. It does not disperse the meeting, but exterminates it. And the “progressive international community” is not sounding the alarm.

Moreover... In Angola in the 1960-1970s, black racism became the official ideology of various rebel movements. In 1961, the leader of the Union of Peoples of Angola, Holden Roberto, gave his fighters the following order: “Kill everyone who is white.” Mulattoes were also killed as “traitors” and “fake” blacks. The pogroms took place under slogans in the style of “Beat the mulattoes and whites, save Angola!”

Maybe it was the blacks who were taking revenge for the centuries of humiliation of colonialism?

But in the same way in Africa they slaughtered and slaughtered each other. Let's say, the Hausa people in Nigeria slaughtered the Ibo people - they slaughtered them so famously that in a few weeks they exterminated up to a million people.

In the same way, the Hutus slaughtered the Tutsis - with the same success, they killed up to a million people.

In general, exactly the same thing happens in Africa as in Europe: everyone always considers themselves better than others. During tribal division, when they don’t really know about the existence of different races, they slaughter according to the tribal principle. With some, even weak, education, this xenophobia takes the form of racism: “We are better because our race is more correct!”

However, there is also a black racial theory, no worse than Chamberlain’s.

From the book Don't Kiss [collection] author Tolstaya Tatyana Nikitichna

Black collar and white snow The plot that gives the album its name consists of a series of photographs taken at intervals of several seconds by photographer Leonidov on November 7, 1919 on Red Square. As always on this day, it is snowing. Hats, collars, caps - everything is covered in wet snow. U

From the book To the Barrier! 2009 No. 02 author Newspaper Duel

RACISM AT THE UN? THIS IS WHERE RACISM IS! Text of the speech of Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejadan at the Durban-2 Conference on the problems of racism, April 20 in Geneva Mr. Chairman, dear Secretary General of the United Nations, dear Supreme

From the book Newspaper Tomorrow 268 (3 1999) author Zavtra Newspaper

ORDINARY RACISM Russians in Latvia have been turned into powerless slaves. This is known to all governments and parliaments of the world and all international organizations. But the UN does not impose sanctions on the racist Latvian state, and human rights activists in European capitals do not

From the book Apology of Capitalism by Rand Ayn

Racism Racism is the lowest, most crude and primitive form of collectivism. It is the principle by which a person's moral, social or political significance is attributed to his origin; principle that states that intellectual properties and

From the book White's Burden. Extraordinary Racism author Burovsky Andrey Mikhailovich

Racism? Or something different? Primitive tribes and ancient peoples were not racists at all. Of course, they all knew very well what “theirs” looked like. After all, for a long time all “their own” lived and multiplied in complete isolation from the “others”. In some villages everyone was even outwardly

From the book Newspaper Tomorrow 955 (9 2012) author Zavtra Newspaper

Whose racism is “cooler”? Let us not pretend that in the XVII, XVIII or 19th centuries only evil European racists and the victims of their terrible racism lived on earth. To put it mildly, everything is much more complicated. It is typical for ALL people, not just Europeans, to consider themselves better than others. Moreover

From the book Financial Crisis 2009. How to Survive author Popov Alexander

American black racism In the USA, being a white racist is completely unthinkable: allowing the mildest statements not only about the inequality of races, but even about the fact that the races are not the same, would be an act of political and professional suicide. But black racism is a phenomenon

From the book Furious Limonov [The Great March on the Kremlin] author Dodolev Evgeniy Yurievich

Racism is alive... What does all this mean? Yes, a real “trifle”! The simple fact is that racism has not gone away. In the United States, white racism partly went underground, partly adapted to new conditions. Black racism has received state and public support, but it is not going anywhere

From the book Literary Newspaper 6432 (No. 39 2013) author Literary Newspaper

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Chapter 7. Our “Black Tuesday” and “Black Thursday” What are the dangers of “toxic”

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My Personal Racism “Elvis was a hero to most, Never meant a sh... to me. This asshole was a complete racist. His mother f... and John Wayne there too, Because I am Black, and I am proud." From the song “Fight the Force” by the group “Enemy of the People” Nobody, of course, remembers

Racism Races are distinguished by objective external characteristics such as skin color, facial features and body features. But these traits have nothing to do with the formation of thinking, which is potentially the same for all people on the planet. The origin of races may be explained by the fact that people

From the author's book

Black air, white snow On March 5, 2012, the opposition showed the first signs of fatigue. What to do next? Udaltsov's desperate attempt At the entrance to Pushkin Square, just beyond the metal detectors, there are a guy and a girl with huge bouquets of white carnations. They hand out flowers

From the author's book

White man, white hell Anastasia BelokurovaJanuary 21, 20160Culture about the film "The Revenant""The Revenant" (USA, 2015, director - Alejandro Gonzalez Iñarittu, starring: Leonardo DiCaprio, Tom Hardy, Mark Hrisco, Will Poulter, Domhnall Gleeson)At the beginning of the 19th century Missouri River area

Grade 5 out of 5 stars by makhov-64 12/23/2018 20:45

Naturally, a person named Tokhtam can only put 1)

Grade 5 out of 5 stars from Dmitry 05/28/2018 08:48

Contradicts modern scientific data. Modern research Many of the author's ideas are smashed to smithereens. The book is intended for a person who is not interested in the data of modern sciences, such as genetics, archiology, sociology...

Grade 2 out of 5 stars by RHCP 01.12.2016 19:19

Everything is written correctly. But there is no way out in sight. And it is not known when he will appear. I involuntarily remembered the words of God the Creator: Let us create man in Our image, in Our likeness. Apparently there were a lot of performers and everyone tried to make their contribution. What should we do now, how to create an ideal. Or maybe he is not needed. It’s just that people should complement each other in what they are meant to do, like men and women.

Grade 4 out of 5 stars from Alexey 11/14/2016 15:08

(Only in 350 A.D. did the Xiongnu people lose the war with China and leave Northern China forever. They went to Europe, where they were known as the Huns. The Xiongnu were bearded and powerful, they worshiped the cow and the sun. Aryans, what can you do about it.) This written in the article - A little later, and this is a description of the Huns from Jordan - “By appearance short, with a broad chest, a large head and small eyes, with a sparse beard, touched with gray hair, with a flattened nose, with a disgusting color (of skin), he showed all the signs of his origin.” An obvious Mongol.

Grade 3 out of 5 stars from Anatoly 03/02/2014 23:19

Complete nonsense. I read several chapters, the picture was formed, I just don’t want to continue. Profanity and superficiality in almost every line. The author writes about “Aryans” as a language group. He didn’t even bother to find out the origin of the word “Aryan”. It is more correct to say, Arya is noble, as in Sanskrit and Pali they designate a person who has achieved a certain spiritual progress. “Arya” is a stage of spiritual development of a person and has nothing to do with the racial origin of the applicant.
The chapter about the “overpopulation” of Africa and its “salvation” by slave traders is simply laughable. The life of tribes in the wild, with an extensive method of environmental management, itself regulates the population. A demographic explosion is possible only with a “civilized” way of life, which creates a surplus of products, which leads accordingly, to an increase in the number of people.
About rude Indian savages breaking into the houses of innocent whites and killing them - these are tales for residents
large cities that do not know what natural harmonious coexistence with nature makes human life.
People living in harmony with nature, the so-called “savages”, are distinguished by their fine mental organization, decency and respectful attitude towards the world around them. But the descendants of these people, deprived of their land, methods of farming, language, culture, drunk on alcohol, of course, become degraded
,asocial elements.
In general, the book is pseudoscientific crap. I could have contrasted a lot of things, but it would be a waste of time to do so....

Grade 1 out of 5 stars from Tokhtar

When people talk about racism, they usually mean white racism, which once existed a long time ago in the USA and South Africa - legal restrictions on the rights of blacks compared to whites, apartheid, segregation, lynchings, the Ku Klux Klan, "Whites Only" signs. .

Now practical examples white racism no longer exists, but in recent decades people have started talking about black racism - when blacks show hostility and violence towards whites on racial grounds. Among the manifestations of black racism are the numerous murders of white farmers in Zimbabwe and South Africa in recent decades. However, in words, the official “black” authorities in these countries do not encourage attacks on whites. They simply do not interfere with the “living creativity of the masses”, and do nothing to protect whites. But in Angola in the 1960s and 1970s, black racism was the official ideology of various rebel movements that sought to achieve Angola's independence from Portugal. For example, in 1961, the leader of the Union of Peoples of Angola, Holden Roberto, gave his fighters the following order: “Kill everyone who is white.” In addition, Holden Roberto's supporters killed not only whites, but also mulattoes, considering them "fake" blacks. The struggle for independence boiled down to pogroms in the style of “Beat the mulattoes and whites, save Angola!” Any practical racism is usually supported by a corresponding theoretical basis that substantiates the superiority of a race over all others. White racists were guided by the theories of J. Gobineau and H. Chamberlain that whites were the “superior race.” Do black racists have any similar theory? It turns out there is. The ideological basis of black racism is a theory known as “negritude.” The meaning of Negritude comes down to the fact that Negro civilization and Negro culture are superior to all other cultures and civilizations, Negroid peoples play a special, exclusive role in the development of humanity, the Negroid race is superior in its qualities to all other races. Replace the word "negro" with the word "white" - and you get the same Gobineau and Chamberlain. That is, Negritude is the adaptation of “white” racist teachings to “black” needs. Roughly speaking, blacks “licked” the negritude from whites. However, there is a more interesting circumstance. The fact is that France has the most direct relation to the creation of Negritude. Léopold Senghor and Aimé Césaire are considered the creators of Negritude. Leopold Senghor was born in 1906 into a black tribe in the French colony of Senegal. He studied at a Catholic college, and in 1928 he went to France and entered the Sorbonne University in Paris, and after completing the course he remained there to work as a teacher. In 1934, Leopold Senghor, together with Aimé Césaire (who will be discussed in more detail later), began publishing the Black Student magazine in Paris, designed for black students studying in France. It is in the pages of The Black Student that Senghor and Césaire present the concept of negritude. In 1945, Leopold Senghor was elected to the National Assembly (French parliament), and even became its vice-speaker! In France, Senghor was married twice, both times to white women. And so in 1948, Leopold Senghor went back to Senegal with his second white wife, and created his own party - the Democratic Bloc of Senegal. In 1960, Senghor became president of Senegal, which gained independence. In December 1980, Leopold Senghor resigned and again went to France, where he lived until his death in 2001. In 1983, the creator of Negritude was elected academician of the French Academy of Sciences. At the funeral of Leopold Senghor, French President Jacques Chirac spoke, in his words, “Senegal has lost a statesman, Africa a soothsayer, and France a friend.” Another theorist of Negritude, Aimé Césaire, was born in 1913 into a black family on the French island of Martinique. Aimé Césaire's father was a major official. In 1931, Aimé Cesaire moved to Paris and entered the prestigious Lyceum Louis-le-Grand. In Paris, Césaire met Senghor, and, as already mentioned, they published the magazine “Black Student”, in which they described in detail, article by article, the theoretical principles of negritude. By the way, like Leopold Senghor, Aimé Césaire married a white woman in France. In 1938, Aimé Cesaire returned to Martinique, and in 1945 he was elected mayor of Fort-de-France, the administrative center of the Martinique department. It should be noted that the island of Martinique is not a colony, it is an overseas department of France, having exactly the same legal status as departments near Paris, Rouen or Marseille. Thus, the ideologist of Negritude, Aimé Cesaire, became the mayor of one of the major French cities, and held this position for 56 years, until 2001. 56 years as mayor is an absolute world record, and history does not know a second such case. Aimé Césaire died in 2008. French President Nicolas Sarkozy attended his funeral. What’s also interesting is that the theory of negritude was warmly supported by the living classic of French philosophy, Jean-Paul Sartre, whom many consider the greatest philosopher of France in history. In 1948, Jean-Paul Sartre wrote the philosophical essay “Black Orpheus,” in which he stated that Negritude is “anti-racist racism” and “black people are the chosen people.” So, what do we have in the bottom line? Negritude, as the ideological basis of black racism, was created in France by two blacks married to white women. The creators of Negritude subsequently occupied high positions in the system of French government (Cesaire, as we remember, became the mayor of a large city, and Senghor became the vice-speaker of the French National Assembly). Negritude was supported by the greatest French philosopher J.-P. Sartre, and the funeral of the creators of Negritude was attended by French Presidents J. Chirac and N. Sarkozy.p>

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And this is how Soviet scientists saw the philosophy of Negritude several decades ago:

The theory of Negritude as a leading direction in national African philosophy

The most famous African philosopher is the creator of the theory of "nigritude" Senghor, Leopold Sedar (Senghor, Leopold Sedar) born on October 9, 1906, in Joal (Senegal). He studied at a Catholic school, graduated from Paris College and the Sorbonne in classical philology and French linguistics. Senghor is the author of the theory of negritude, which for the first time drew attention to the soul of a black man; philosopher, poet, soldier, first president of Senegal, “dancing politician”, who ruled for 20 years and voluntarily resigned, a man from those who are commonly called “saints”, whose name during his lifetime was named the symbol of the new life of Senegal. Participant in World War II, deputy of the French National Assembly in 1946-1959. First President of the Republic of Senegal (1960-1980). All of Senghor’s ideas presuppose the achievement of a higher form of knowledge, designed to lead the world out of a dead end through “the invasion of the irrational, magical into the sphere of reason,” this is his literal expression. Text hidden

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The ideas of Negritude and the African model of socialism were formed by Senghor under the influence of anti-industrialist trends of the 1930s, the works of Catholic thinkers E. Mounier and Pierre Teilhard de Chardin, the works of early Marx, the works of C. Mackay and L. Hughes, as well as the Antillean poets E. Cesar and L.Damaza. Among the well-known humanities and politicians are: philosophers and historians Cheikh Anta Diop and Ly Abdoulaye, political scientists Mamadou Dia and Majmut Diop, philosopher and poet Leopold Sédar Senghor and David Diop, writers Abdoulaye Saji, Ousmane Sosé, writer and folklorist Birago Diop, etc. P. In order to promote Negritude, Senghor helped found the cultural journal Presence Africaine, and in 1948 he published, under his editorship, an Anthology of New Negro and Malgache Poetry (Antologie de la nouvelle po sie n gre et malgache) with a preface by J.-P. Sartre, who called Negritude "anti-racist racism". Taking into account the lessons of Nazism, Senghor adjusted his position, and not racial, but cultural differences acquired central importance, the idea of ​​​​the complementary action of African and European traditions was strengthened. "In those early years, we firmly believed in our ideological mission, that we serve the cause of historical progress. However, later I consoled myself with the fact that on my part this was not a manifestation of racism, but a feeling of solidarity with my white-faced brothers." Text hidden

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In 1958, after Charles de Gaulle came to power, Senghor called on the people of Senegal to vote in a referendum in support of DeGaulle's constitution and vote for autonomy status within the French Community. In general, Senegal maintains peaceful interstate and domestic policy and makes efforts aimed at the financial recovery of the country and the elimination of external and internal debt. In early 1959, Senegal, together with the former French Sudan, formed the Federation of Mali, which in June 1960 became independent within the French Community. In August of the same year, Senegal left the federation and was recognized as a sovereign state. On April 4, 1960, Senegal gained independence, but maintains close economic relations with the former metropolis. Senghor's poems contain the high culture of Afro-French poetry of the 20th century. combined with the traditions of African folklore. In the book African Countries and Africa's Road to Socialism (Nations et Voie Africaine du Socialisme, 1961), Senghor argued that socialism in Africa should be based on the use of achievements modern science and technology. Text hidden

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Back in the 1930s, African intellectuals held different positions. Some from the very beginning advocated the abandonment of past traditions and full adoption of Western values; others (and this was well shown by Ousmane Sausset in the novels “Karim” and “Mirages of Paris” using the example of the destinies of the heroes of his literary works) argued that the adoption of a foreign culture, the rejection of the traditions and heritage of ancestors leads to the destruction of the individual. One can notice certain changes in orientations and their assessments over time. If in the 20-60s the mentality of the intelligentsia was dominated by criticism or even denial of Western culture and a general apologetics for Negro civilization, then the situation changed. The entire system of teaching in schools, the "alfabetization" of the adult illiterate population, daily propaganda were oriented towards Western values, and an analysis of various aspects of city life, including family law, shows an ever-increasing "Europeanization" with the approval of most of the local intelligentsia. This was convincingly demonstrated, for example, by Abu Toure, a philosopher and sociologist from the Republic of Côte d'Ivoire.

There is still no consensus in assessments of this process, which is actively going on in all African countries. Thus, one of the oldest and leading anthropologists of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, A., has a sharply negative attitude towards him. Kashamura. In one of his earliest works, he examines the culture of neocolonial society, in which, in his opinion, in all everyday life there is an alienation from the true from the true cultural values and morality. Notes the complete absence of “African patriotism.” The destruction of traditional moral and cultural norms takes place in schools, through the media, and is completed in universities, created as prototypes and copies of Western ones. He does not consider this situation normal and calls for a fight against the complete Westernization of African culture through a cultural revolution.

However, there are specialists who assess this influence differently and see positive features in it. This point of view is expressed, for example, by the scientist Bumbi Yoka Mudimbe, a writer, historian, and publisher who is also interested in the problems of cultural anthropology. He writes that “Westernized traits are dual in their meaning: on the one hand, they play a negative role, introducing the norms and values ​​of the West, displacing local norms; on the other hand, they play a positive role, since they allow the introduction of new methods of thinking, understanding the world, and taking a person beyond the narrow framework of traditional perception." Violation of traditions is a sign of ideological instability in society. Outwardly we are Africans, but internally we will soon lose the African spirit; for example, one state cannot live without another, countries of the world cannot exist without each other. There is cultural exchange between countries, which creates conditions for spiritual enrichment. The African way of thinking is influenced by the European worldview, although African philosophy in general is oriented towards traditional cultural values.

There is another side to the problem. Many traditional African beliefs are intertwined with Christian doctrine. Any dynamic culture requires a way out, a conditional dialogue with at least an imaginary culture, organized on a different basis. European culture regularly experienced a fascination with various kinds of “Orientalisms,” and in fact these were always responses to the needs of one’s own culture, resolved in the form of a conditional dialogue with the implied “other.” This is a constant phenomenon in history; only the most stagnant cultures lack it. And on the basis of Afro-Christian philosophy, friendship and cooperation arose between the countries of the former metropolises. The main reason for the creation of the Commonwealth was the participation of Africans on the side of the mother country in the Second World War and in achieving independence in the 60s of the twentieth century. The French are grateful to the Africans who fought on their side in World War II. Military operations took place in North Africa, and then spread across the sea, continued in France and ended with the liberation of Marseille and Paris. The attitude of the majority of Africans to the main canons of Western civilization is quite clear. World wars in Europe with the participation of approximately a million “Senegalese shooters” from the African colonies destroyed in their eyes the idea of ​​​​the omnipotence and invincibility of the white man, subject to the same suffering, vulnerable to bullets, as the Africans who fought shoulder to shoulder with him. Thanks to this, some African countries received the right to visa-free entry into Europe. For a long period in most African countries, local culture replaced the alien European civilization, but at the same time there are active adherents of the European way of life. And it would be nice for our civilization to “seem to confirm the African slogans of those times” with the soulfulness that still remains in the tropics of Africa.

When we're talking about changes in this area, as a rule, mean the interaction of European and some “African” cultures. Meanwhile, although the existence of one language and one nation within one country is often proclaimed, in practice there is not a single African country where one could talk about a single ethnocultural environment. There is a process of studying the culture of individual ethnic groups and creating certain general norms based on the interaction and mutual influence of different ethnic cultures, mixing individual elements of European (more precisely international) and a number of local ethnic cultures. The degree of study of these problems varies. Although the governments of almost all independent African countries have set the task of forming a single nation, and therefore a single culture, the scientific study of integration within individual countries has long been realized. Concerns about growing Europeanization and the fate of traditional culture gave rise to an appeal to the study of the latter. There is a recognized need to record rapidly changing or disappearing elements of culture, sometimes even unfamiliar to the younger generation of Africans. “The customs and traditions of Black Africa are often unknown to Africans themselves, not to mention other inhabitants of our planet,” wrote Congolese Jacob Okanza.”

Such studies are now being carried out in almost all countries of the continent, and regional organizations setting themselves the task of coordinating research and developing a common position and methodology. You can name, for example, created in 1968. in Niamey (capital of the Republic of Niger) the Regional Center for Research and Documentation on Oral Tradition and the International Center for Bantu Civilizations, established in 1983 in Libreville (capital of Gabon). The goal of the latter is the organization and coordination of all research in the field of cultural history, work is planned on collecting materials, holding symposiums and festivals, research on migrations of Bantu music and culture of the Bantu-speaking peoples of Africa, regular publication of the magazine “Muntu” (“Man”). In many countries, the work of museums is intensifying , colorful albums are published dedicated to the culture of the country or individual peoples inhabiting it.If an African knows his mythology, he can be considered a noble person with reason, since a reasonable person cannot forget the wisdom of his ancestors.

A very interesting representative of African philosophy in painting is the Mozambican artist Malangatana Valente Gwenya (b. 1936). His paintings, such as “People and Beasts”, “Birds Are Also Caught”, reflect the peculiar philosophy of “neototemism”, proclaiming the unity and equality of people with other living beings. Text hidden