Publishers of 1 Russian newspaper bell. Bell. “Bell” - general characteristics

"Bell"

In 1856, Herzen’s friend N.P. came to London. Ogarev to take part in the activities of the Free Russian Printing House. Considering the revival of the democratic movement after the end of the Crimean War, the two of them decide to publish a periodical organ, which will appear much more often than Polar Star, and give it the name "Bell".“The Bell” began to be published in July 1857. It was a newspaper that was published once or twice a month, but sometimes the frequency was changed, “Vivo voco!”, i.e. “Calling the living!” proclaimed Herzen and Ogarev in the epigraph of their newspaper. Later he was joined by another: “Land and Freedom,” which expressed the main demand of “The Bell” on the peasant issue. The publication program put forward three main requirements:

“Liberation of speech from censorship!

Liberation of the peasants from the landowners!

Liberation of the tax-paying class<т.е. крестьян>- from beatings! 1

From the very first issues, Herzen launched a criticism of the feudal landowners and the entire political system in “The Bell” Tsarist Russia. He especially sharply criticizes the landowners, their cruel attitude towards the peasants, the tsarist dignitaries and embezzlers, deaf to the suffering of the masses. At the same time, Herzen still hopes to find among the progressive nobility, following the example of the Decembrists, people who are capable of forcing the government to abandon its cruel policy towards its own people.

Herzen did a lot for the development of newspaper and magazine genres of revolutionary publications. He had a prototype for an editorial. He introduced many sections: “Under Trial”, “Is It True?”, “Under a Hidden Concealment”, made the department of small critical correspondence called “Mixture” very bright, successfully used a pamphlet, and masterfully commented on messages from Russia.

Basileva 3.P. “The Bell” by A. I. Herzen (1857-1867). M., Gospolitizdat 1949.

Ardent patriotism was the basis of all Herzen's revelations and criticism.

However, Herzen also had certain illusions at this time. He still believed in the good intentions of the noble Tsar Alexander II, he still believed that the country’s progress was possible through the good will of the nobles, and he hoped for the abolition of serfdom “from above.” At the end of the 1850s, Herzen addressed a series of open letters to the Tsar, where he expressed his hope that the Tsar would not allow himself to be further deceived and would give freedom to the peasants. It must be said that the very fact of an appeal by a private person, a journalist, to the Tsar-Autocrat of All Rus' as an equal citizen was unprecedented audacity. Such an appeal from Herzen carried a revolutionary charge, a charge of disrespect. But still, this was Herzen’s weakness, which was a manifestation of liberal hesitation and hopes for the goodwill of the tsar. This position of Herzen caused protest from consistent Russian democrats, such as Chernyshevsky and Dobrolyubov. But, of course, these liberal notes from Herzen were only a deviation from the democratic line, and not an expression of the essence of his publication. main reason these fluctuations are explained by V.I. Lenin in the article “In Memory of Herzen”. Herzen, who left Russia in 1847, could not yet see a revolutionary people in it: the people were asleep, crushed by centuries of feudal oppression. But as soon as Herzen saw the revolutionary people in the sixties, he firmly stood for the revolution.

The reform of 1861, which the tsarist government was nevertheless forced to carry out and cancel serfdom, at first pleased Herzen, but an analysis of the conditions of liberation once again opened Herzen’s eyes to the government’s anti-people policy on the peasant issue. The uprisings of the peasants against the conditions of liberation, which again enslaved and dispossessed them of land, forced Herzen to more decisively promote the revolutionary struggle for freedom and land. Herzen and especially Ogarev criticize the peasant reform of 1861. “The people have been deceived by the tsar,” writes Kolokol in July 1861. Herzen provides extensive information and commentary on the uprisings in Russia against the reform. “Russian blood is being shed,” writes Herzen about the punitive measures of the tsarist government. He was especially shocked by the uprising in the village of Bezdna, where peasants were shot and their leader Anton Petrov was killed. Now Herzen and Ogarev directly appeal to the Russian people and revolutionary youth with a call for an uprising against the autocracy. Herzen condemns the government for the arrest and exile of the leader of Russian democracy - N.G. Chernyshevsky. Ogarev writes a number of proclamations addressed to the army and youth. “Start a printing press!” they advise revolutionaries in Russia. Herzen decisively breaks with the liberals (Turgenev and others) who sided with the government. The revolutionary convictions of Herzen and Ogarev manifested themselves especially clearly in connection with the Polish uprising of 1863. Russian society, including liberal society, was gripped by patriotic chauvinism, and tsarist troops brutally dealt with the rebels. Under these conditions, Herzen took the side of the rebels. He recruited V. Hugo to the Bell to support the Polish uprising. V. Hugo wrote fiery words addressed to the Russian troops: “Before you is not an enemy, but an example.” He sharply condemned Kolokol, the leader of conservative Russian journalism, Katkov, who demanded reprisals against the rebellious Poles. Katkov, in turn, began to publicly discredit Herzen’s ideas.

The success of "The Bell" throughout the years of publication was extraordinary. Russia, according to contemporaries, was flooded with this revolutionary newspaper.

However, in Russia, the revolutionary situation of the late 50s and early 60s did not develop into a revolution - spontaneous peasant riots could not lead to success. Tsarism managed to cope with the crisis, isolate the leader of Russian revolutionary democracy, Chernyshevsky, exiling him to distant Siberia.

Due to this situation in the country, Kolokol began to be published less frequently and in 1867 it ceased publication altogether. Having experienced regret that the revolution in Russia did not materialize, Herzen Last year publication of “The Bell” begins to increasingly turn to the facts of the revolutionary struggle of the European proletariat, the activities of the First International, organized by K. Marx. Particularly interesting in this regard are “Letters to an Old Comrade,” written after the closure of Kolokol. This appeal towards the end of his life (Herzen died in 1870) to the First International emphasizes the sensitivity of the Russian journalist to all new facts of revolutionary activity in the West. But Herzen’s main pain was in Russia: neither freedom nor democracy was realized in it.

It should be noted that the ideas of Belinsky and Herzen had a great influence on many public and literary figures of the peoples of Russia and Slavic countries in subsequent decades.

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Introduction

1. "Bell" - general characteristics

2. A.I. Herzen - creator of the Free Russian Printing House

3. “Bell” in the struggle for the liberation of the peasants

Conclusion

List of used literature

Introduction

The socialist views of A. I. Herzen and N. P. Ogarev, which arose under the influence of the works of Saint-Simon and Fourier, laid the foundation for the socialist tradition in Russian social thought, which is sometimes also called the doctrine of Russian peasant socialism. They understood the essence of socialist teaching as the anthropological idea of nature, the full realization of which only socialism can be, and the historical dialectic of world reason, understood as the spirit of man, initially striving for a system of brotherhood and equality. They proceeded from the idea that after the fall of serfdom, Russia would follow the socialist path. Socialism became their ideal, and the fight against serfdom acquired a socialist overtones. Pirumova N.M. A. Herzen is a revolutionary, thinker, and person. - M.: Artist. lit., 1989, p.112.

The publishing activities of Herzen and Ogarev occurred during the period of the crisis of serfdom. During the era of the crisis of serfdom, Russian economic thought developed in inextricable connection with the struggle around the issue of serfdom.

A social situation where the framework of the old industrial relations no longer corresponded to the development of productive forces, led to the emergence of the first revolutionary situation in Russia at the turn of the 50-60s of the 19th century. The interests of the Russian peasantry were reflected primarily in the ideology of the new generation of revolutionary intelligentsia.

In the 50s, two centers were formed that led the revolutionary democratic movement in the country.

The first (emigrant) was headed by A.I. Herzen, who founded the “Free Russian Printing House” in London (1853). Since 1855, he began publishing the non-periodical collection “Polar Star”, and since 1857, together with N.P. Ogarev, the newspaper “Bell”, which enjoyed enormous popularity.

Herzen's publications formulated a program of social transformation in Russia, which included the liberation of peasants from serfdom with land and for ransom.

Initially, the publishers of Kolokol believed in the liberal intentions of the new Emperor Alexander II (1855-1881) and placed certain hopes on wisely carried out reforms “from above.” However, as projects for the abolition of serfdom were being prepared, illusions dissipated, and a call to fight for land and democracy was heard loudly on the pages of London publications. Eidelman N.Ya. Herzen against autocracy: the secret political history of Russia in the 18th - 19th centuries. and Free Press. - M.: Nauka, 1984, P.19.

Russian peasant socialism became part of a doctrine called utopian socialism. Utopian socialism is a designation accepted in historical and philosophical literature for the doctrine that preceded Marxism about the possibility of transforming society on socialist principles, about its just structure.

In the 60s and 70s of the 19th century in Russia, as a result of long-term socio-theoretical quests, a special type of utopian socialism emerged, called populism, and within the framework of which the development of the socialist idea mainly took place in Russia in the 2nd half of the 19th century. Populism was also guided by the ideology of Russian peasant utopian socialism, the foundations of which were laid by Herzen and Ogarev.

Russian populism is characterized by the following: character traits, originating from the ideological publications of Herzen and Ogarev: 1) recognition of capitalism in Russia as a decline and regression; 2) recognition of the uniqueness of the Russian economic system in general and of the peasant with his communal artel, etc. in particular, 3) ignoring the connection between the “intelligentsia” and legal-political institutions in the country with the material interests of certain social classes. In the 60-80s. Revolutionary populists strived for a peasant revolution in different ways. Since the mid-1880s. liberal populism, which previously did not play a significant role, became the dominant trend.

Populism exhausted its revolutionary potential and was ideologically defeated by Marxism. With the beginning of the proletarian stage, the leading role in the liberation movement passed to the working class, led by the ideologists of Marxism.

Purpose of the work: to show specific examples the opposition of the works of Herzen and Ogarev on the issue of the liberation of peasants using the example of the creation of the Free Russian Printing House and publications in the magazine “Bell”.

1. Give a general description of the publications and ideology of Kolokol;

2. Identify the role of I.I. Herzen (and N.P. Ogarev) in creating the printing center of the liberation movement of Russia in the 19th century;

3. Characterize the directions of the “Bell” in the struggle for the liberation of the peasants.

1. “Bell” - general characteristics

“The Bell” is an uncensored Russian newspaper published by A.I. Herzen and N.P. Ogarev in London from 1857 to 1867. Went out 1 to 4 times a month; a total of 245 issues were published. Brief literary encyclopedia. In 9 vols. T.3.- M.: “Soviet Encyclopedia”, 1966, P.267.

Having emerged as “surplus sheets” to the “Polar Star,” “The Bell” quickly turned into an independent publication, embodying the urgent needs of the Russian revolutionary movement. Coming out with the motto on the title page “Vivos voco” (“Calling the living” - the opening words from F. Schiller’s “Song of the Bell”), “The Bell” became the voice and conscience of the era, rallying around itself the leading social forces in Russia and in exile in on the basis of a broad program of socio-political transformations.

Defining the meaning of the agitation launched by the Bell, Lenin wrote that Herzen “raised the banner of the revolution,” “the great banner of struggle by addressing the masses with free speech.”

The face of the newspaper was determined by the speeches of Herzen and Ogarev, as well as articles, notes and letters from Russia, policy documents underground revolutionary organizations (for example, “Land and Freedom”), materials on the history of the liberation struggle, secret government decrees that penetrated the “Bell” through a wide network of secret correspondents. Among the latter are representatives of various opposition circles, from high-ranking officials to disgraced Decembrists and Petrashevites, including writers, publicists, critics (P.V. Annenkov, M.A. Bakunin, N.A. Dobrolyubov, S.S. Gromeka, N.A. Melgunov, K.D. Kavelin, I.S. Turgenev, N.I. Turgenev, E. Tur, N.I. Utin, etc.). G. Garibaldi, V. Hugo, G. Mazzini, J. Michelet, P. Proudhon and others also participated in “The Bell.”

The abundance of incriminating material led to the release in 1859 of a special supplement to “The Bell” - “Under Judgment!”

“The Bell” was read throughout Russia: in the royal palace and among students, in ministries and peasant huts. During the revolutionary situation of 1859-1861, the circulation reached 2000-2500 copies. The decline of the revolutionary upsurge was manifested in a sharp decline in the social influence of Kolokol. Hoping to restore the authority of the Bell, Herzen moved the publication to Geneva in 1865. But disagreements with the Geneva “young emigration”, weakening of live contacts with Russia, increased political reaction and other reasons forced the publication to cease. An attempt to resume "The Bell" on French(1868) did not find support among the French bourgeois democrats.

Issues of literature and art were subordinated in Kolokol to the tasks of revolutionary agitation, exposing the policies of tsarism, and discrediting its representatives. In accordance with this, the problems of the literary publications of Kolokol, where the poems of M.Yu. were published. Lermontov, (“Alas! how boring this city is...”), N.A. Nekrasov (“Reflections at the Main Entrance”), accusatory poems by Ogarev, M.L. Mikhailova, P.I. Weinberg, V.R. Zotova and others. From time to time, Herzen published excerpts from “Past and Thoughts” in Kolokol.

The struggle for merciless realism united Kolokol and Sovremennik, despite differences on private issues, for example, in the assessment of the so-called “accusatory direction”, taken by Herzen as a harbinger of broad democratic glasnost.

The consequence of Herzen’s liberal-enlightenment illusions was his article “Very dangerous!!!” (“Very Dangerous,” 1859), which marked the beginning of the controversy between Kolokol and Sovremennik. At the same time, Kolokol, like Sovremennik, condemned “flight from social issues” and rebelled against aesthetic criticism.

“Kolokol” defended the idea of continuity of revolutionary generations, defending in this regard the “superfluous people” of the 30s and 40s as victims of the Nikolaev reaction. In the article “Superfluous People and Bile People” (1860), Herzen opposed Sovremennik’s skeptical assessment of the historical role of the nobility, especially the noble intelligentsia of the era of Belinsky and Granovsky.

By the mid-60s, the publishers of Kolokol realized that Chernyshevsky and Dobrolyubov were right, pinning their hopes on the revolutionary raznochinstvo - “the young navigators of the future storm.”

The social and aesthetic ideal of "The Bell" was a type of "Don Quixote of the Revolution." Herzen found traits of this “highest type of humanity” in Pestel, Ryleev, Belinsky, Mazzini, Garibaldi. Devotion to the revolution and moral impeccability were for Herzen one of the decisive criteria in assessing the work of Turgenev and Nekrasov, Saltykov-Shchedrin and Dostoevsky, Grigorovich and Goncharov. Demanding a correspondence between the ethical and aesthetic, “The Bell” was indignant against the petty-bourgeois limitations of bourgeois society, which depersonalizes a person, expelling “the artistic element in life itself.” In this direction, the works of J. Byron, V. Hugo, Charles Dickens, George Sand and others were assessed in “The Bell”.

The newspaper shaped democratic views on international politics, European philosophy and sociology (commented on the works of Fourier, Saint-Simon, Proudhon, L. Blanc, Mill, Schopenhauer, etc.).

“The Bell” outlined the main milestones in the history of socialism in Russia: indicated the historical place of the Petrashevites and Belinsky, characterized the teachings of Chernyshevsky, defended the “nihilism” of the Pisarevites as “science and doubt, research instead of faith” (“Order triumphs!”, 1886).

The theory of “Russian socialism” of Herzen and Ogarev introduced into the consciousness of advanced society respect for the people as the creative force of history. On behalf of the people, “Kolokol” pronounced judgment on the predatory reform of 1861, tore off the masks from the liberal-protective parties, indignant at the “slave” philosophy of Slavophile publications (“Russian conversation”, newspaper “Den”), the opportunism of “Otechestvennye zapiski”, the obsequious reactionary nature of Russkiy Vestnik and Moskovskie Vedomosti. The fight against censorship repression occupied a large place in Kolokol.

The demand for “land and freedom”, the call “To the people!” To the People” (“The Giant Awakens!”, 1861) found a warm response in advanced Russian literature. "The Bell" influenced many writers. The dispute with the position of “The Bell” regarding the fate of Russia and Europe determined the polemical plan of Turgenev’s novel “Smoke”. Reacted sensitively to the publications of M.E. Kolokole. Saltykov-Shchedrin in “Foolish” essays, “Satires in prose”, the chronicle “Our Social Life”. L.N. listened carefully to Herzen’s propaganda. Tolstoy, who visited the publishers of Kolokol in 1861. D.I. sympathized with the direction of the newspaper. Pisarev, T.G. Shevchenko, N.G. Pomyalovsky, V.A. Sleptsov and other writers and critics. In disputes with the Bell, the social and ethical ideals of F.M. Dostoevsky were formed.

Reading “The Bell” and communicating with its publishers was punishable in Russia by hard labor and exile. The tsarist government took a number of measures to counter his influence. However, the newspaper continued to be “hidden but read.” “The Bell” contributed to the development of satirical journalism in the 60s (“Iskra” by V.S. Kurochkin).

The striking humor of "The Bell" and its favorite genres - pamphlet, feuilleton, ironic commentary - became part of the arsenal of satirical journalism. Brief literary encyclopedia. In 9 vols. T.3.- M.: “Soviet Encyclopedia”, 1966, P.267-268. The experience of Kolokol was widely used in Lenin's Iskra and other Bolshevik newspapers.

2 . A.I.Herzen - createdtel of the Free Russian Printing House

In August 1852, Herzen arrived in London, where he intended to live for a short time. The purpose of his trip was not initially the creation of a free Russian press, but over time, Herzen began to develop new creative ideas, after which he came to the conclusion that since the paths to his homeland were cut off, London was the most favorable place for the practical implementation of his plans .

And, indeed, England in the 50s was a very convenient place for this endeavor, because, unlike France, there were no police restrictions, there was freedom of meetings, and political emigrants could get asylum.

And so, in February 1853, Herzen published an appeal to the “Brothers in Rus'”, in which he announced the creation of “free printing in London” and addressed readers with the request: “Send what you want - everything written in the spirit of freedom will be published , from scientific and factual articles...to novels, stories and poems...If you don’t have anything ready, your own, send the forbidden poems circulating around by Pushkin, Ryleev, Lermontov, Polezhaev, Pecherin, etc....The door is open to you. Do you want to use it or not? “This will remain on your conscience... To be your organ, your free, uncensored speech is my whole goal.” Herzen A.I. Essays. T. 7.- M.: State Publishing House fiction, 1958, pp. 186-188.

Herzen substantiated the historical necessity and timeliness of this undertaking in what he wrote at the same time. open letter to the editorial office of the newspaper "Polish Democrat". He argued that the Russian political movement had so far developed “among the aristocratic minority,” without the participation of the people, “beyond the boundaries of the people’s consciousness.” The possibility of unity with the people was found in socialism, which he, being a utopian, saw in communal land ownership, in the liberation of peasants with land. But at that moment, Herzen wrote, the tsar, through censorship persecution, “deprived us of our language.” Hence the inevitability of the creation of a free press.

The free printing house was created on June 22, 1853. A few days later the first edition appeared - the brochure “St. George’s Day! Yuryev day! To the Russian nobility", in which Herzen calls on the Russian nobility to begin liberating the peasants from serfdom. He tries to influence the minds and feelings of the nobles, predicting an inevitable catastrophe, Pugachevism, if they do not find the strength to destroy serfdom by influencing the tsar. But if the nobles are not able to change the situation in the country, then Herzen reserves the right to call on the people to liberate themselves.

In August 1853, Herzen published his brochure “Baptized Property,” directed against serfdom. With sharp strokes, Herzen draws the orders and morals of Russian feudal society, the arbitrariness of tsarism and landowners. In the brochure, an important role is played by the populist idealization of the rural community as the embodiment of “underdeveloped communism,” but these illusions are the essence of Herzen’s democratic views, his faith in the great future of the Russian people.

He writes: “The Russian people endured everything, but held on to the community. The community will save the Russian people; by destroying it, you hand him over, tied hand and foot, to the landowner and the police...

The Russian people did not gain anything... they retained only their inconspicuous, modest community, i.e. common ownership of land, equality of all members of the community without exception, fraternal division of fields according to the number of workers and own secular management of their affairs. That’s all Candrillona’s (i.e. Cinderella’s) last dowry - why take away the last.” Herzen A.I. Essays. T. 9.- M.: State Publishing House of Fiction, 1958, pp. 15-40.

The turning point in the position of the Free Russian Printing House came after the death of Nicholas I and the end of the Crimean War. In connection with the new rise of the social movement in Russia, Herzen decided to publish the almanac “Polar Star”. On July 25, 1855, on the anniversary of the execution of the Decembrists, its first issue was published with profiles of the five executed Decembrists on the cover.

“Polar Star” was preceded by a program. The main thing in the program was “Spreading a free way of thinking in Russia.” This program should unite all advanced society in the country around Herzen.

It turned out to be impossible to publish The Polar Star strictly periodically: the second book was published at the end of May 1856. In the article “Forward! Forward!” placed there, Herzen wrote: “In the first case, our entire program boils down to the need for openness, and all the banners are lost in one thing - the banner of the liberation of the peasants with the land. Down with wild censorship and wild landlordism! Down with corvée and rent! The courtyards are free! And we’ll deal with police officers and police officers later.” Herzen A.I. Essays. T. 8.- M.: State Publishing House of Fiction, 1958, P.226.

By the middle of 1856, it was discovered that so many manuscripts were coming from Russia, and in their nature they sometimes differed so significantly from the direction of the Polar Star, that it was necessary from time to time to publish special collections compiled from these manuscripts.

At the beginning of April 1856 he arrived in London old friend and Herzen’s like-minded person, Nikolai Platonovich Ogarev, who immediately began to participate in the publications of the Free Printing House.

The second book contained his article “Russian Questions” signed “R.C.” (“Russian man”). From this time on, Ogarev became Herzen's closest assistant and ally. Ogarev, who had just arrived from Russia and keenly felt the needs of Russian social life, had the idea to publish a new periodical organ in London. This publication was supposed to be published more often than Polar Star, respond to all current events and issues of Russian life, and be convenient for distribution.

A year later, in April 1857, Herzen notified readers with a special leaflet about the publication of “The Bell”: “Events in Russia are moving quickly, they must be caught on the fly and discussed immediately.

For this purpose we are undertaking a new time-based publication. Without determining the release date, we will try to publish one sheet monthly, sometimes two, under the title “Bell”... There is nothing to say about the direction; it is the same one that passes invariably throughout our entire life...

In relation to Russia, we passionately want, with all the strength of our last belief, so that the unnecessary old swags that hinder its mighty development will finally fall away from it.

For this, we now, as in 1855, consider the first necessary, inevitable, urgent step: the liberation of speech from censorship, the liberation of the peasants from the landowners, the liberation of the tax-paying class from beatings.

We appeal to all compatriots who share our love for Russia, and ask them not only to listen to our “Bell,” but also to ring it themselves.” Herzen A.I. Essays. T. 8.- M.: State Publishing House of Fiction, 1958, P.525. How was the Bell delivered to Russia?

One of the first transshipment points was organized in Koenigsberg. Subsequently, Kolokol’s channels of penetration into Russia multiplied. Small in size and thin, the “Bell” easily fit into suitcases with a secret compartment.

Sometimes it was given the appearance of bales of wrapping paper, and then the Bell entered Russia in whole bales. It got to the point that in port cities abroad, military ships arriving there were used: “Bell” was stuffed into the barrels of military guns.

Thus, the activities and main directions of Kolokol’s ideological statements corresponded to the practice and goal expressed by Herzen: to be “your free, uncensored speech.”

3. “Bell” in the struggle for the liberation of the peasants

In the first five years of its existence, Kolokol had unprecedented success in Russia and acquired exceptional influence. This was natural in the conditions of social upsurge that began after the Crimean War, the growth of the peasant movement, and the gradual increase in the revolutionary crisis.

“The Bell” responded to the awakening in broad layers of Russian society of the need for a free, uncensored organ of the anti-serfdom and democratic direction, openly resolving pressing issues of Russian life.

One of the reasons for the popularity of “The Bell” was Herzen’s amazing talent as a publicist. Herzen's indispensable comrade-in-arms was Ogarev, who wrote most of the Kolokol's speeches on economic and legal issues. In addition to their articles, topical reports from Russia were constantly published, brilliantly processed by the editors and equipped with damning notes.

The first issues of Kolokol did not yet contain materials sent from Russia. But already on the 5th sheet the editors could write: “We received a heap of letters last month; the heart bleeds and boils with impotent indignation, reading what is being done under the radar.” Herzen A.I. Essays. T. 9.- M.: State Publishing House of Fiction, 1958, P.53. From this time on, “The Bell” began a series of revelations aimed at specific representatives of the autocratic-serfdom regime and the atrocities that they committed against people.

From February 15, 1858, “The Bell” began to be published twice a month. Its circulation was increased to three thousand copies, which at that time was considered a very large figure.

The main feature of the direction of the Bell and the entire free press was the struggle for the liberation of peasants from serfdom. The magazine wrote with sympathy about the peasant unrest and demanded the immediate abolition of serfdom with the transfer to the peasants of the land that was in their use.

The higher the peasant movement rose, the more clearly the alliance between the government and the landowners was defined, the more decisively Herzen stood on the side of the people, on the side of the young revolutionary generation led by Chernyshevsky.

Herzen increasingly began to make a revolutionary appeal addressed directly to the people.

The democratic line of Kolokol was clearly manifested in the demands that Herzen and Ogarev put forward in the field of peasant reform during the period of its preparation.

They persistently demanded “not the redemption of the estate land, but the redemption of all the land that the landowner peasants have for use” (“Bell”, l. 35), and resolutely rebelled against the granting of power to the landowner to the “chief of the community” (“Kolokol”, l. 42 - 43), against the establishment of a transitional, “urgently obligated” period for peasants (“Bell”, l.51), against pieces of land in favor of the landowner (“Bell”, l.62). Elsberg Ya.E. Herzen.- M.: State Publishing House of Fiction, 1956, P.439.

Being an organ of revolutionary democracy, Kolokol at the same time reflected the liberal tendencies of its leaders, their retreat from democracy to liberalism. Herzen and Ogarev were less consistent than Chernyshevsky and Dobrolyubov. Not understanding the class nature of the Russian autocracy, they dreamed of a “revolution from above.” This explains the appearance of Herzen’s letters to Alexander II, in which he persuades him to free the peasants with their land.

Herzen correctly understood the limitations of bourgeois revolutions, in which the masses remain dispossessed, but at the same time he was distrustful of violent methods of transforming reality.

This was expressed in his article “Revolution in Russia”, which was published in the second page of “Kolokol” dated August 1, 1857. This is how Herzen describes the situation in Russia: “For one hundred and fifty years we have been living in the dismantling of the old... Peter I and I are in perestroika, we are looking for forms, we imitate, we copy and a year later we try something new. It is enough to change the minister to suddenly turn state peasants into appanages or vice versa.”

And this is followed by the conclusion: “Having power in its hands and relying on the one hand on the people, on the other - on all thinking and educated people in Russia, the current government could do miracles, without the slightest danger to itself. No monarch in Europe has such a position as Alexander II, but to whom much is given, much will be required!..” Herzen A.I. Essays. T. 7.- M.: State Publishing House of Fiction, 1958, pp. 97-107.

Herzen gradually comes to the conclusion that it will not be possible to achieve any transformations in Russia peacefully; at the same time, as noted above, he was not a supporter of the revolution. Although in No. 8 of “The Bell” Herzen points out the legitimacy of the peasant war for the sake of the interests of the people.

The reason for this was the statement of the Tambov serf owners, who opposed the government’s intention to carry out a reform of serfdom.

The strengthening of such trends in Herzen’s journalism is due to the fact that by 1859 a revolutionary situation had developed in Russia.

"The Bell" changes its social orientation. This was expressed in the fact that Herzen became disillusioned with the middle intelligent nobility, ceasing to see in them the engine of subsequent changes in Russian life.

Meanwhile, the inconsistency and contradictions in the political position of the Bell led to a conflict between Herzen and the new generation of raznochintsy revolutionaries. On page 44 of the magazine dated June 1, 1859, Herzen published the article “Very dangerous!!!”.

In this article, Herzen attacks Sovremennik and Whistle for their ridicule of liberal accusatory literature and for their negative attitude towards superfluous people. Dobrolyubov, who hosted “Whistle,” argued that one should not limit oneself to exposing private injustices, which is what “The Bell” excelled at, especially the “Under Trial” section. According to Dobrolyubov, it is necessary not to denounce, but to fight autocracy and serfdom.

Dobrolyubov responded to Herzen’s speech in the June book of Sovremennik, in which he argued that revolutionary-democratic criticism, without denying the need for exposure and publicity, strives for “a more integral and thorough course of action.” In sheet 64 of the Bell (March 1, 1860), a “Letter from the Province” was printed, signed “Russian Man,” which is a statement of the positions of Russian revolutionary democracy. Its author reproached Herzen for praising the royal family instead of exposing lies, and also said that the only means for fundamental changes in the life of a Russian person is an ax.

Herzen commented on this letter with a preface, which he published in the same issue of the magazine. “We disagree with you not in the idea, but in the means,” he wrote, “not in the principles, but in the manner of action. You represent one of the extreme expressions of our direction... To the axe... we will not call until there remains at least one reasonable hope for a denouement without an axe. The deeper... we peer into the Western world... the more our disgust from bloody coups grows... We must call for brooms, not an ax!.. Uprisings arise and grow, like all embryos, in the silence and mystery of the mother's womb, they need a lot strength and strength to go out into the light and loudly call out the cry... Having called for an ax, you need to have an organization... a plan, strength and readiness to go down with bones, not only grabbing the handle, but grabbing the blade when the ax is too wide? Do you have all this? Herzen A.I. Essays. T. 7.- M.: State Publishing House of Fiction, 1958, pp. 323-330.

The disagreements between Herzen and revolutionary democracy, despite their depth and seriousness, were disagreements between people, in Herzen’s words, of a “friendly camp.” In general, “The Bell,” as well as other publications of Herzen, had a huge influence on the development of the political consciousness of the democratic intelligentsia of the 1850-1860s. and played a big role in the Russian liberation movement.

As the revolutionary situation in Russia grew, the direction of the Bell became more and more revolutionary. If you look at how the magazine responds to Alexander II, this trend is obvious. So, on July 1, 1858, Herzen writes: “Alexander II did not live up to the hopes that Russia had during his accession.” A month and a half later, he declares: “We repent to Russia of our mistake. This is the same Nikolaev time, but boiled with molasses.” Immediately before the reform, disappointment reached its highest level. “Farewell, Alexander Nikolaevich, happy journey! Bon vouage!..We are here,” wrote Herzen on April 15, 1860. (“Bell”, No. 68-69).

Losing hope in Alexander II, Herzen and Ogarev increasingly realized that there were no “living” people in the palace, that they needed to call and awaken the people and the democratic intelligentsia. Decisive and bold calls are increasingly heard from the pages of Kolokol. In the 60s, the position of the magazine and Herzen himself on all major issues took on a revolutionary-democratic character. After the announcement of the laws on the “liberation” of the peasants, peasant movements increase, reflecting the deep dissatisfaction of the peasantry with the manifesto of freedom.

After Herzen's detailed acquaintance with legislative acts tsarist government on the peasant issue, “The Bell” wrote about the “new serfdom”, that the people were deceived by the tsar (“The Bell”, l. 101). Herzen now brands “liberation.” "The Bell" puts forward a demand for the transfer of all landowners' land to the peasants (l. 134).

After the execution of peasants began, Herzen placed in sheet No. 105 dated August 15, 1861 the article “The Fossil Bishop, the Antediluvian Government and the Deceived People,” which is an appeal to the masses: “You hate the clerk, you are afraid of them - and you are absolutely right; but also in the tsar and the bishop... Don’t trust them!” Herzen rejects liberal attempts to embellish reality: “Down with the masks! It’s better to see animal teeth and wolf snouts than fake humanity and submissive liberalism.” Herzen also points out in the article that “The Bell” is on the side of the Russian peasant.

Since mid-1861, Kolokol has published editorials, written in simple language, aimed at the broad masses of soldiers and peasants.

“The Bell” addresses the people and tells them: “The people need land and freedom” (l.102). “The Bell” addresses the soldiers and the question: “What should the army do?” - answers: “Don’t go against the people” (l.111).

From mid-1862, Herzen and Ogarev began publishing the leaflet

“General Assembly”, which was formally an appendix to the “Bell”, but had independent significance due to its orientation towards the mass reader.

Addressing peasants and commoners, it sought to “serve as an expression of the opinions, complaints and social needs of people of all religious persuasions and agreements.”

More and more often the Bell is calling for a nationwide armed uprising. Now the leaders of the magazine are demanding not only the transfer to the peasants of the land that was in their use under serfdom, but also the complete abolition of landownership; now they are calling to rise up against the oppressors with arms in hand.

In 1861-1862 The leaders of Kolokol helped N. Serno-Solovyevich, Obruchev, Sleptsov create the revolutionary society “Land and Freedom,” which in Russia was associated with Chernyshevsky. The program of this society was based on the previously mentioned article “What do the people need?” The issue of organizing a secret revolutionary society is posed even more acutely in Nos. 107 and 108 by Kolokol in the polemic against the proclamations of the Velikoruss society. From that time on, the influence of “Land and Freedom” on “The Bell” became very significant. Herzen himself was reserved about the creation of “Land and Freedom,” but on March 1, 1863, he made an appeal to this organization, which was published in No. 157.

After 1863, the “Bell” began to change its appearance. The number of small propaganda and accusatory notes has decreased, and the number of voluminous articles has increased. These articles included incisive sketches of social life and predictions for the future.

At the end of 1864 - beginning of 1865. Herzen meets with young Russian emigrants in Geneva. This did not produce tangible results, but in 1865 Herzen moved the publication of “The Bell” to where it was published until July 1, 1867. It was then that the magazine turned ten years old. At the same time, Herzen and Ogarev announced the suspension of publication for six months, until January 1, 1868. And in November, a message was published that “The Bell” would be published in French from January 1, targeting foreign readers as well. In the first issue of the French Bell, Herzen directly acknowledged the decrease in his influence in Russia and correctly saw in this a reflection of the fact that the printed organ had fulfilled its historical mission. 15 issues were published in 1868

"Bells" in French. IN last issue on December 1, the editors explained their decision to stop publishing this organ. This was reflected in the “Letter to N. Ogarev”, which Herzen wrote to him: “Dear friend, I want to offer you nothing more and no less than a “coup d’etat”, namely, to immediately stop publishing “The Bell”... The new generation is going its own way way, it does not need our speeches... We have nothing to say to the rest... We have diverged so much from the views prevailing in Russia that it is impossible to throw a bridge...”

Herzen is famous for being the creator of uncensored literature in Russia, although it was published outside of Russia, in London. But this had a colossal influence on the formation and development of domestic journalism, including opposition journalism, on the formation of public opinion and the liberation movement in Russia in the 19th century.

Conclusion

“The Bell” is a foreign printed, uncensored organ published by A.I. Herzen and N.P. Ogarev in London from 1857 to 1867. Having emerged as “surplus sheets” to the “Polar Star,” “The Bell” quickly turned into an independent publication, embodying the urgent needs of the Russian revolutionary movement. “The Bell” became the voice and conscience of the era, rallying around itself advanced social forces in Russia and in exile on the basis of a broad program of socio-political transformations.

The position of the leaders of Kolokol, Herzen and Ogarev, despite the similarities with the democrats, almost always stood apart, except that in the early 60s, Herzen’s views were as close as possible to the views of the revolutionary democrats. There is no need to talk about any more or less normal relations with the authorities at all, since Herzen worked on “The Bell” in exile, and for the imperial government he was enemy number one. And, nevertheless, in conditions when only Ogarev was completely devoted to him in essence, he stubbornly defended his views, which were quite possibly not so radical, but they clearly contained rationalism and lacked adventurism, which to some extent was characteristic of revolutionary democrats.

Herzen’s whole life’s work was to make life easier for the common Russian people, about which he swore an oath (together with his friend Ogarev) as a very young resident of pre-reform Russia.

It was for this that the Free Printing House was created, and it was for this that the Bell was published.

It was the “Bell” of Herzen and Ogarev that was the theoretical source from which future generations of revolutionaries drew inspiration. It was he who first decided to challenge the official authorities and created an uncensored press abroad, which allowed him to speak openly on the most pressing topics for Russian society, and he did this in order to demonstrate to the common people that at least someone cared about him. Until the last moment, he rejected revolutionary violence, which characterizes the founders of the Bell as humanists.

List of used literature

1. Alekseeva G.D. Populism in Russia in the 19th century: ideological evolution. - M.: Nauka, 1990. - 356 p.

2. Herzen A.I. Essays. T. 7-9.- M.: State Publishing House of Fiction, 1958.

3. Dyakov V. A. Liberation movement in Russia 1825-61 - M.6 Science, 1979. - 289 p.

4. History of Russian journalism of the 18th - 19th centuries / Ed. A.V. Zapadova.- M.: “ graduate School", 1973.- 489 p.

5. Bell // Brief literary encyclopedia. In 9 vols. T.3.- M.: “Soviet Encyclopedia”, 1966, P.267-268.

6. "Bell". 1857-1867 / Comp. E.S. Radchenko. Systematized list of articles and notes. - M.: Nauka, 1957. - 367 p.

7. Pirumova N.M. A. Herzen is a revolutionary, thinker, and person. - M.: Artist. lit., 1989.- 245 p.

8. Eidelman N.Ya. Herzen against autocracy: the secret political history of Russia in the 18th - 19th centuries. and Free Press. - M.: Nauka, 1984.- 367 p.

9. Elsberg Ya.E. Herzen. - M.: State Publishing House of Fiction, 1956. - 478 p.

Literature:

Lenin V.I., In Memory of Herzen, Works, 4th ed., vol. 18;

Lenin V.I., From the past of the workers' press in Russia, ibid., vol. 20;

Plekhanov G.V., Herzen the emigrant, Soch., vol. 23, M.-L., 1926;

Reiser S.A., Turgenev - employee of "Bell", in the collection: I.S. Turgenev, Orel, 1940;

Klevensky M.M., Herzen - publisher and his employees, “Literary Heritage”, vol. 41-42, M., 1941;

Smolin I.S., “Bell” (1857-1861), “Scientific notes of the Leningrad State Pedagogical Institute named after A.I. Herzen”, 1941, v. 39;

Smolin I.S., Tsarism in the fight against Herzen’s free press, ibid., 1947, vol. 61;

Yampolsky I.G., Nekrasov and Herzen, “Scientific Bulletin. Leningrad State University", 1947, No. 16-17;

Yampolsky I.G., “Iskra” V. Kurochkina and Herzen, “Scientific Notes of Leningrad State University. Series of Philological Sciences", 1948, c. 13, No. 90;

Basileva Z.P., “The Bell” by Herzen, M., 1949;

Kozmin B.P., Journalistic and journalistic activities of A.I. Herzen. “Polar Star” and “Bell”, M., 1956;

Kozmin B.P., Herzen’s speech against Sovremennik in 1859, “Izvestia of the USSR Academy of Sciences. OLYA”, 1952, vol. 11, c. 4;

Kozmin B.P., N.G. Chernyshevsky’s trip to London in 1859 and his negotiations with A.I. Herzen, ibid., 1953, vol. 12, century. 2;

Dementyev A.G., “The Bell” and the free press of A.I. Herzen, in his book: Essays on the history of Russian journalism 1840-1850, M.-L., 1951;

Nechkina M.V., N.G. Chernyshevsky and A.I. Herzen during the years of the revolutionary situation (1859-1861), “Izvestia of the USSR Academy of Sciences. OLYA”, 1954, vol. 13, c. 1;

Dryzhakova E.N., Controversy between “The Bell” and “Contemporary” in 1859-1860, “Scientific Notes of the Leningrad State Pedagogical Institute named after A.I. Herzen”, 1956, vol. 18, century. 5;

Radchenko E.S., (comp.) “Bell”. 1857-1867. Systematized list of articles and notes, M., 1957;

Sokolova M.A., Anonymous articles of Herzen in “The Bell”, in the collection: Problems and teachings of Herzen, M., 1963;

Porokh I.V., Herzen and Chernyshevsky Saratov, 1963.

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