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Creation submarine is a great achievement of the human mind and important event in the history of creation and development military equipment. The purpose of a military submarine is to act covertly, invisibly, and suddenly. In 1578, the Englishman William Bourne first described a vessel with an air supply tube, capable of taking in and releasing water to change buoyancy. Whether such a boat actually existed is unknown. There is information that the first submarine covered with leather was made by the Dutchman K. van Drebbel around 1620, and King James I allegedly I even took a walk in it along the Thames. Unfortunately, no drawings of this boat have survived. The first submarine to receive practical use, became the “Turtle”, invented in 1776 in the USA by the French inventor D. Bushnell. In the United States, the inventor was called the “father of the submarine.” The submarine's crew consisted of one person. Despite its primitiveness, it already had such elements of a modern submarine as a pressurized hull and a screw propeller (though with a manual propeller). The vessel was armed with a 70-kilogram mine, placed in a special box under the steering wheel. Having immersed itself, at the moment of the attack the boat secretly climbed under the keel of the enemy ship and freed the mine from the box. The mine floated to the top, hit the keel of the ship, and then exploded. In the summer of 1776, during the American War of Independence, the boat carried out a successful attack against the 50-gun English frigate "Eagle".

In 1800, in France, the American Fulton created the Nautilus submarine, which was reminiscent of the Turtle in its design. True, instead of an egg-shaped shape with a diameter of 2.5 m, the new boat had a cigar-shaped streamlined shape with a diameter of 2 m and a length of 6.5 m, and the crew already consisted of 3 people. On board the Nautilus there was a compressed air tank, thanks to which the crew could remain under water for several hours. The appearance of the Submariner by Bourgeois and Brun in 1860 marked a new stage in the creation of submarines. Its dimensions were significantly larger than previous ships, the width was 6 m, the length was 42.5 m, the height was 3 m, and the displacement was 420 tons. The engine, powered by compressed air, made it possible to reach a speed of about 9 km/h on the surface, and under water — 7 km/h. The mine on the Submariner was attached to the end of a 10-meter rod, which was placed on the bow of the ship. Thanks to this feature, it was now possible to attack the enemy on the move. During the American Civil War (1861-1865), the southerners used David submarines, which were 20 m long and 3 m wide. The boat had a diving rudder and steam engine. At the beginning of 1864, such a ship rammed the Northern corvette Guzatanik, which became the first victim of a submarine war.

In 1879, the Russian inventor Dzhevetsky proposed his model of a submarine, equipped with a pedal motor, pneumatic and water pumps, and a periscope to observe the surface when the boat was in the water. The boat was equipped with a mine with rubber suction cups, which during an attack was attached to the bottom of the enemy ship. The fuse in the mine was ignited using current from a galvanic battery. In 1884, the inventor installed an electric motor on a boat, powered by a battery. The boat could move at a speed of 7 km/h for about 10 hours. She became the first production boat in Russian service (there were 50 of them in total). In 1884, the Swede Nordenfel installed a steam engine and a self-propelled mine (torpedo) on his model. The first torpedo was invented by the Englishman Whitehead and his assistant, the Austrian Luppi. Although the first tests took place in 1864, the design of torpedoes remained virtually unchanged until the First World War. The movement of the torpedo (a submarine in miniature) was carried out using a pneumatic engine, powered by compressed air from a tank. In the front of the torpedo there was a detonator and a charge, and then there was a compressed air cylinder, an engine and a regulator, a propeller and a rudder.

At the end of the 19th century. John Holland invented the gasoline-powered submarine. To move underwater, electric motors powered by a battery were used. First time project diesel boat was developed by the designer of a shipbuilding plant in Russia Ivan Bubnov in 1905. The diesel boat "Lamprey" was launched in 1908. For a long time, the effectiveness of submarines was limited by their low speed and short duration of stay under water. The batteries quickly discharged; in order to recharge them from the surface engines, the boats had to float to the surface. During the Second World War, snorkels began to be used for continuous operation diesel engines underwater. Modern nuclear submarines do not require air for power plants, they make long journeys underwater without refueling, and carry medium-range ballistic missiles equipped with nuclear warheads. On board there may be acoustic-guided torpedoes, as well as cruise missiles.

A submarine is a separate class of ships that are capable of diving to great depths and staying under water for a long time. Today, submarines are the main tactical weapon of the navy of any state. Their main advantage is secrecy. This makes submarines indispensable in times of war.

History of creation: the beginning

For the first time, Leonardo da Vinci gave a practical answer to the question of what a submarine is. He described its military-tactical advantages and worked for a long time on a mock-up of the device, but in the end he burned all his mock-ups, fearing irreversible consequences.

In 1578, the English scientist W. Bourne in his report identified a certain submarine ship that he noticed in the depths of the Black Sea. The submarine described is nothing more than the first submarine made in Greenland from leather and seal skins. The ship had ballast tanks, and the exhaust pipe acted as a navigator. Such a submarine could not remain under water for a long time, but even then it showed amazing results.

The official project to create submarines became public only in 1620. Approval for construction was given by the English King James I. The Dutch engineer K. Drebbel undertook to construct the underwater vessel. Soon the boat was successfully tested in London. The engines of Britain's first submarine were oar-powered.

In Russia, the idea of ​​​​creating a hidden fleet was initiated. However, with his death, the project died in its infancy. In 1834, the first all-metal submarine appeared. Its inventor was the Russian engineer K. Schilder. The propulsion system was rowing devices. The tests were successful, and at the end of the year the world's first underwater missile was launched.

The American fleet could not stand by. In the 1850s, the project began under the leadership of L. Hanley. The boat was controlled from a separate compartment. The engine was a large propeller, which was spun by seven sailors. Observation took place through small protrusions in the body. In 1864, Hanley's first creation sank an enemy ship. Subsequently, Russia and France could boast of similar successes.

During World War I, submarines were equipped with diesel and electric engines. Russian engineers played a major role in the design of the new generation of submarines. During the war, 600 deep-sea vessels took part in the fighting, which ultimately sank about 200 ships and destroyers.

History of creation: a new era

By the time World War II began, the USSR had the largest number of submarines (211 units). In second place was the Italian flotilla - 115 submarines. Next were the USA, France, Britain, Japan and only then Germany with 57 deep-sea vessels. It is worth noting that the submarine was considered the main combat unit of the fleet during the war. This is also proven by the fact that the USSR dominated the surface of the sea and under it until the end of World War II. The submarines were to blame, which sank a total of more than 400 enemy ships.

At that time, submarines could dive up to 150 meters, staying under water for several hours. The average speed was about 6 knots. The revolution in underwater engineering was made by the famous scientist Walter. He designed a streamlined body and an engine powered by hydrogen peroxide. This allowed the submarines to overcome the speed barrier of 25 knots.

Submarines today

A modern submarine is a deep-sea vessel that uses nuclear power plants to obtain the necessary energy. The submarines are also equipped with batteries, diesel engines, Stirling engines and others. At the moment, the flotillas of 33 countries are rich in such combat units.

Back in the 1990s, NATO had 217 vessels in service, including SSBNs and submarines. At that time, Russia had just under 100 units on its balance sheet. In 2004, the Russian Federation ordered the creation of a small non-nuclear submarine from Italy. The project was called S1000. However, in 2014 he was frozen by mutual consent.

Today, hydrogen submarines are considered one of the fastest and most versatile submarines. These are deep-sea vessels of the U-212 class, which relatively recently began to be produced in Germany. Such boats operate on the basis of hydrogen, due to which maximum noiselessness of movement is achieved.

Classification of submarines

Submarines are usually divided into groups according to categories:

1. By type of energy source: nuclear, diesel, combined cycle, fuel, hydrogen.
2. By purpose: multi-purpose, strategic, specialized.
3. By size: cruising, medium, small.
4. By type of weapon: torpedo, ballistic, missile, mixed.

The most common deep-sea unit is the nuclear submarine. This type of submarine has its own classification:

1. SSBNs - nuclear submarines with ballistic weapons.
2. SSGN - nuclear submarines with cruise missiles.
3. MPLATRK - multi-purpose missile and torpedo submarines, the main source of energy for which is a nuclear reactor.
4. DPLRK - diesel submarines with missile and torpedo weapons.

Among the experimental types we can distinguish: flying, winged and river uninhabited submarine.

Design Basics

Submarines consist of two hulls: light and durable. The first is intended to give the ship improved hydrodynamic properties, and the second is to protect against high pressure water. The durable case is mounted from, but titanium alloys are also often found.

The submarine has special tanks for controlling trim and ballast. The dive is carried out using hydroplanes. Ascent is determined by the displacement of water by compressed air from ballast tanks. The ship is propelled by diesel or nuclear power plants. Small submarines run on batteries and electricity. Special diesel generators are used for recharging. Used as a motor

Types of weapons

The goal is to complete certain tasks:

Destroying warships
- liquidation of multi-purpose vessels,
- destruction of enemy strategic targets.

Depending on the targets, the corresponding types of weapons are installed on the submarines: mines, torpedoes, missiles, artillery mounts, radio electronics. For defense, many deep-sea ships use portable anti-aircraft systems.

Russian submarines

The Halibut submarines were among the last to enter service. The construction of 24 units took about 20 years, starting in 1982. Today Russia has 18 Halibut submarines at its disposal. The boats were built as part of Project 877. These deep-sea ships became the prototypes of the so-called “Varshavyanka”.

In 2004, the new generation Lada submarine was born, powered by an electric diesel installation. The ship is designed to destroy any enemy objects. These Russian submarines have become widespread due to their minimal noise level. Due to the high cost, the project was quickly cancelled.

The main striking force of the Russian flotilla is the nuclear submarine Shchuka-B. The project lasted more than 20 years until 2004. Today, there are 11 submarines of this type in service with the Russian Federation. “Pike-B” is capable of reaching a speed of 33 knots, diving to 600 m and maintaining autonomous navigation for up to 100 days. Capacity - 73 people. The construction of one unit cost the treasury about 785 million dollars.

Also in the fleet's arsenal are such Russian nuclear submarines as Akula, Dolphin, Barracuda, Kalmar, Antey and others.

The latest submarines

In the near future, the Russian Navy will be replenished with new units of the Varshavyanka series. These will be the newest submarines “Krasnodar” and “Stary Oskol”. The boats will enter service in the second half of 2015. The deep-sea ships “Kolpino” and “Veliky Novgorod” are at the docks, but their construction will only end by the end of 2016. As a result, the balance sheet Black Sea Fleet there will be 6 units of the Varshavyanka project.

Representatives of this series are designed to counter enemy attacks, that is, to protect naval bases, communications, and the coast. The Varshavyanka submarines are classified as silent submarines. Powered by an electric diesel engine.

The length of such a submarine is 74 m and its width is 10 m. Underwater, the ship can reach a speed of 20 knots. The diving threshold is 300 m. The voyage period is up to 45 days.

Missing and sunken submarines

Until the 1940s, submarines were constantly lost in the abyss of the seas and oceans. The reasons for this were design flaws, oversights by the commanding staff, and secret military actions of opponents.

After the Second World War, missing submarines are counted in just a few. Over the past 50 years, engineering has reached its peak. Since the early 1950s, submarines were no longer considered dangerous to the lives of the crew, and any contact with the enemy was immediately recorded by the military base. This is why there have been so few lost submarines in recent decades.

The most famous missing ships are the Scorpion (USA), Dakkar (Israel) and Minerva (France). It is noteworthy that all 3 sunken submarines crashed under strange circumstances within 2 weeks of 1968. The reports of all 3 disasters mentioned an unidentified object, after contact with which contact with the crew was lost forever.

In total, over the past 60 years, 8 sunken nuclear submarines have been officially recorded, including 6 Russian and 2 American. The first was the ship "Thresher" (USA), which had 129 people on board. The disaster occurred as a result of an enemy attack in 1963. The entire crew died.

The most sensational and tragic is the fate of the Kursk submarine. In the summer of 2000, due to a torpedo explosion in the first compartment, the ship sank to the bottom of the Barents Sea. As a result, 118 people died.

Confederate submarine - the first in the world Submarine, successfully used in battle. February 8th, 2015

In the summer of 2000, an expedition led by Clive Cussler recovered a sunken submarine from the ocean floor near the city of North Charleston, South Carolina. The ship sank back in 1864. The submarine is a unique device, as it was the world's first submarine to be successfully used in combat.

150 years ago, the first ever successful submarine attack on a warship took place. During the American Civil War, on February 17, 1864, the Confederate submarine Hunley, powered by hand and armed with a pole mine, launched the Northern steam artillery corvette Housatonic to the bottom of Charleston Harbor. Having reported a successful attack, the Hunley never returned home. Thus, she became the first submarine to die in the battle.

Let's remember this in more detail...

The reasons for her death are still debated, and the operation organized in 2000 to raise the Hunley only added fuel to the fire of these disputes. According to historical sources, H. L. Hunley, a submarine of the Confederate States of America, was built in 1863 during the Civil War at the expense of private entrepreneurs and inventors Horace L. Hunley (she bore his name), James McClintock and Baxter Watson. Here's how it went:

The first reliable information about submarines dates back to 1578, when the Englishman William Bowrie published a design for a boat that he planned to make from leather and wood. However, he never got around to it. So he was ahead of him by the Dutchman Cornelius van Drebbel, who settled in England, and in 1620-1624 he designed and tested three submersible vessels of his own design.

During the American Colonial War for Independence, Yale College student David Bushnell built a one-man submarine, the Turtle. An attempt was made to attack the 64-gun English ship Eagle. However, it ended in failure - it was not possible to install a mine under the ship...

Wilhelm Bauer submarine project

In 1796, Robert Fulton, already known to us, presented his design for the Nautilus submarine, more than 6 m long, equipped with a hollow keel, which also served as a ballast tank. Underwater, the boat moved using a manual drive on the propeller, and on the surface it could use a sail, which was raised on a folding mast. But no one was interested in his idea...

The German Wilhelm Bauer turned out to be luckier. In 1848, he built and tested a steel submarine, 7.5 m long, with a crew of two people turning the propeller by hand. But things did not go further than experiments, which included hundreds of dives, including to a then record depth of 45 m.

In practice, the Americans again tried to use submarines. During the Civil War between the North and the South, the southern ports were blocked by the northern fleet. The southerners had to urgently find some means with which they could make a hole in the blockade ring.

To this end, New Orleans engineers Baxter Watson and James McClintock built the Pioneer submarine in 1862, about 1/2 in length. Its tests were carried out on Lake Pontchart Rhine, but they did not have time to complete it. When the northern troops approached New Orleans, the Pioneer simply had to be sunk.

They tried to build a new submarine, the American Diver, in Mobile, where both engineers and financier G. Hanley moved. They were supported by the city commandant, General Maury, who assigned engineers from the 21st Alabama Infantry - William Alexander and George Dixon - to them. However, this boat also sank during testing as a result of a leak in the hull.

After the death of the American Diver, Horace Hunley lacked the funds to build a new submarine. But then a certain Mr. Singer, a sewing machine manufacturer, appeared. With his money, the privateer company Singer Submarine Corporation was established.

McClintock immediately built a third boat. To facilitate and speed up its creation, he used an old steam boiler. Both sides were cut off and the pointed ends were riveted to the resulting cylinder. The dimensions of the new submarine were as follows:

• length 40 feet (12.2 m)
• width 3 feet 10 inches (I,I6 m)
• height 4 feet (1.22 meters, including turrets 1.75 m
• displacement about 2 tons

The submarine was initially called “Pioneer-3” (“Pioneer-2”, this is “American Diver”).

The boat was equipped with two entrance hatches. One ballast tank with external taps was placed in the bow and stern. The tanks were not closed at the top so that the crew could visually monitor the water level in them. They were filled by gravity, after opening the outboard valves, and drained by hand pumps. The maximum diving depth was calculated to be 60 feet (18.3 m).

Seven or eight men turned the long crankshaft, which ran three-quarters the length of the hull and was connected through a gland seal to a three-bladed propeller in the stern. Maximum speed during testing it was 2.5 knots (4.63 km/h). The cast removable keel could be detached if necessary (for example, for an emergency ascent).

The crew consisted of a commander, seven to eight “rowers” ​​and a second officer, who filled or emptied the stern tank, and also worked with the sailors on propeller shaft. The commander performed three duties at once: through the windows in the bow turret he observed the situation and looked for the target, controlled the horizontal and vertical rudders, and filled and drained the bow ballast tank. The second officer, located near the aft turret, served the aft ballast tank at the command of the commander.

To provide for the crew fresh air in the submerged position there were two air intakes 4 feet (1.22 m) high, placed close to each other, but the small diameter of the pipes (1.5 inches, i.e. 3.78 cm) and the lack of forced ventilation made these devices almost useless . The supply of compressed air allowed us to stay under water for two, two and a half hours. The cramped conditions in the boat were incredible; in the event of an accident, the sailors' chances of rescue were minimal.

The boat was completed in early July. The Confederate command appointed Lieutenant John Pine as her commander, and the crew was recruited from volunteers. They began to master the technique. Already on July 31, a demonstration of the submarine’s capabilities took place. A towed floating mine (90 pounds of black powder, i.e. 40.8 kg) managed to blow up an old coal scow.

Tests showed that for the successful use of such a mine it was necessary to move from a positional position to a submerged position no more than 200 yards (183 m) from the target, and the water depth must be such that the submarine could pass under the keel of the attacked vessel, towing the mine on a rope 150 feet (45.7 m) long. After 5-6 minutes, the boat surfaced behind the target and at that moment the mine hit the bottom of the attacked ship. But even such a close distance did not guarantee success, because the rope tended to sag under its own weight. Therefore, this weapon was later abandoned. Instead, a 6-meter long pole with a copper cylinder at the end was attached to the bow of the boat. It was filled with 70 lb (32 kg) of black powder and equipped with several contact fuses. Meanwhile, the northerners strengthened the naval blockade of Charleston. Therefore, on August 12, the Confederates delivered a submarine there on two railway platforms, covered from prying eyes with a tarpaulin, and launched it into the water.

But on August 29, 1863, after one of the exercises, the boat suddenly sank at the moment when it was returning to the quay wall of Fort Johnson. According to one version, a steamship passing by created a wave that overwhelmed the open hatch. According to another version, the commander, standing in the hatch, accidentally pressed the lever for filling the ballast tank, as a result of which the boat went under water with the hatch open. Lieutenant Pine, who was in the front hatch at that moment, and two sailors managed to escape. Five people died.

The boat was raised two weeks later (September 14) from a depth of 42 feet (12.8 m) and put in order. Meanwhile, Hanley, having learned about the disaster, decided to take matters into his own hands. He himself came to Charleston to lead the new crew. Raised and repaired submarine.

On October 11, under his command, she successfully simulated an attack on the Cooper River on the anchored steamship Indian Chief. But 4 days later, disaster occurred again. On the morning of October 15, the boat sank during another dive. At 9.25 she moved away from the quay wall and at 9.35 she began to dive. The distance from the pier was only 500 yards (457 m).

Horace Hanley was at his post under the closed front hatch. Second officer Thomas Park (son of the co-owner of the plant where this boat was built) was under the rear hatch. Judging by the investigation materials, Park did not have time to fill the aft ballast tank with water at the same time as the bow one, which Hanley filled (it is possible that the commander ordered Park to do this too late). As a result, the submarine, which continued to move forward, suddenly received a significant trim on the bow and rapidly went down. With all its might, it stuck its nose into the bottom at an angle of 35 degrees. The crew's attempts to surface were unsuccessful. Water from the front ballast tank spilled into the bow of the hull, and the rear tank did not have time to fill with water, so there was nothing to pump out. The power of the “living motor” was insufficient to pull the boat out of the ground in reverse. The team, distraught with horror, also failed to unscrew the rusty bolts that held the removable keel.

Only three weeks later, divers found the boat at a depth of 50 feet (15.2 m).

When they pulled it to the surface with a steam winch, they discovered that inner space mostly free of water, and that the crew died from suffocation.

One of the first to descend inside the boat raised ashore was the military commandant of Charleston, General P. Burigard.

He later recalled:

“The sight was indescribable terrible. People twisted in agony huddled in a heap at the bottom. There was an expression of despair and mortal agony on everyone’s faces. Some held burnt ones in their hands candles. Hanley was at his post. With his right hand he was resting on the hatch cover, as if he was trying to open it; a candle was clutched in his left hand.”.

At the end of November, infantry lieutenant George Dixon from the 21st Alabama Regiment became the third commander of the unlucky submarine. In front of him stood two difficult tasks. First, recruit a new crew for the boat, which has become widely known as the “floating fob” and “killing machine.” Secondly, learn to control this vessel in such a way that it can not only swim, but also fight. As for the first problem, money helped solve it.

Businesses in and around Charleston were destroyed by the Federal blockade. Therefore, local entrepreneurs have established a substantial prize fund. Thus, 100 thousand dollars (2.5 million at the current exchange rate!) were guaranteed to the crew of the destroyer (“David” or “Hanley”) for sinking the battleship “New Ironsides”. Greed conquered fear. Five sailors from the Indian Chief expressed their desire to become submariners, and three more volunteers arrived from Mobile.

Dixon dealt with the second problem by carefully studying in practice the technical and operational features of the submarine. He trained the crew in the shallows, with a strong cable connecting the boat to a steam winch on shore, ready to pull it out at the first signal. In two months, Dixon increased his time under water to two and a half hours. The most appropriate tactics for its use were as follows.

1. Reach the attack line in the dark, in a positional position.
2. Target a ship at anchor.
3. Take a course perpendicular to the central part of its side, fasten the rudder and dive when there are no more than 300 yards (274 m) left to it.
4. Throw all the strength of people into overcoming this space in one jerk. Hit the underwater part of the ship with a pole mine and immediately reverse.

Of course, the likelihood that the boat would perish along with the victim was high, but such a primitive submarine was simply not suitable for anything else. At the beginning of February 1864, the crew was ready for battle.

The boat was given the name "H. L. Hanley" in honor of the deceased Captain Hanley. On the evening of February 17, 1864, the submarine finally set off on its first combat mission.

The order read:

“Go to the harbor exit and sink any enemy ship that comes across.”

Carried by the ebbing tide, she slipped between Sullivan and Palm Islands. Two and a half miles offshore, the Federal steam corvette Housatonic, displacing 1,964 tons, was anchored. He was on duty at the entrance to the canal that leads to Charleston Harbor. The depth at this point was 28 feet (8.5 m). The corvette was launched in 1861, its dimensions were 62 x 11.5 x 5 meters, and it was armed with 13 guns, including 5 large-caliber ones.

The eyewitness described further events as follows:

Board "Canandaigua"

Sir, I have the honor to submit to you the following report concerning the destruction of the corvette Housatonic of the United States fleet by a rebel destroyer at Charleston on the 17th of this month.

At about 8:45 p.m., Officer of the Watch Crossby noticed an object moving in the water approximately 330 feet ahead. It looked like a board sliding across the surface and headed towards the ship. In two minutes, this object approached almost close to the ship. During this time, the target was hunted down, reverse gear was given, and all people were called to combat posts. Immediately the destroyer hit the ship from the starboard side in front of the mainmast, abeam the powder magazine. It was impossible to hit her with a cannon shot. An explosion followed a minute later and the ship sank, settling to the stern and listing to port.

BMost of the crew escaped on the rigging and were picked up by boats from the Canandagua. This vessel came to our assistance and saved the entire crew, with the exception of Lieutenant Haseltine, Mate Mazzei, Quartermaster John Williams, Gunners Thomas Parker and John Walsh, who perished with the wreck.

Captain Pickering was seriously wounded by the explosion: he cannot himself contact you with a report about the loss of his ship.

Sincerely, your humble servant Higginson, Lieutenant.

Marek Sarba. "Hunley before sailing." Canvas, oil. 2010

Most likely it was like this: shortly after sunset on the evening of February 17, 1864, at a dock near Sullivans Island, eight hired sailors climbed into a boat and set off on a mission. A six-meter steel pike with a powder charge attached to it was attached to the bow of the boat. The attack was led by Lieutenant George Dixon, behind him sat seven sailors on a wooden bench, whose muscles drove the submarine's manual propeller.

The crew quarters were only four feet high and three and a half feet wide. Propulsion system The Hunley consisted of a crankshaft turned by seven people and connected to a screw by means of a chain. The large flywheel increased efficiency: while the crew was working, the torque of the flywheel helped maintain speed.

As the crew began to turn the heavy iron crankshaft, Dixon consulted the compass and set course for the steam sloop Housatonic, anchored four miles offshore. The rebels' plan was to swim within six feet of the surface to the blockade runner. But in order to finally direct the ship, Dixon had to raise it to the surface just enough to look out through the small front window - there were no periscopes as such then.

On board the Housatonic they noticed something strange at the surface of the water, and a combat alert was announced. They opened fire from the sloop, but the torpedo boat was already in the so-called dead zone, too close to the sloop. Two minutes later, the submarine Hunley drove its pike into the starboard side of the Housatonic, just below the waterline. As the submarine reversed, the trigger cord caused the 135-pound gunpowder bomb to detonate, exploding the entire aft section of the steam sloop. Backing up, the boat moved away from the sloop...

The corvette sank. "Hunley" also did not return home. At first it was assumed that the boat was pulled into the hole by a stream of gushing water, and it sank along with the ship. However, when the corvette was raised after the war, the boat was not found in it. However, the legend about the victim who killed his killer wandered from book to book for more than 100 years until recently.

Of course, the sinking of the Housatonic did not have much impact on the course of the war. However, it played a very important role in history, proving that combat use This kind of apparatus is possible in naval warfare. “For the first time in history, a submarine was able to sink an enemy ship,” Robert Neyland, head of the US Navy’s underwater archeology department, wrote recently in the American press. - The Hunley is to submarine warfare what the Wright brothers' plane is to aviation. She changed the course of naval history." Well, it's true.

It is also true that after the first victorious underwater attack in history, the Hanley disappeared and, as it turned out many years later, was lost. The submariners managed to give the observers on shore a prearranged signal with a flashlight. And then they disappeared along with the submarine... Its fate became one of the greatest mysteries of the American Civil War for more than a century.

It was not until 1979 that underwater archeologist Mark Nevell and writer Cleve Cussler began a focused search. After studying a number of documents, they came to the conclusion that the submarine, after a successful attack, headed back to the base and even exchanged light signals with one of the Confederate forts. However, for an unknown reason, after that she sank with her entire crew, which is why she is not at the scene of the death of the Housatonic. You should look for a boat on the path leading home. A magnetometer and sonar were used to search for the missing submarine. Nevell and Cussler's assumption turned out to be correct; on August 13, 1994, the expedition discovered an anomaly in the Maffitt Channel, leading to Charlestowan Harbor, approximately 915 meters from the place where the Housatonic died. Upon further examination, it turned out to be the desired object. The Hunley lay on the pound, on the starboard side with a list of 20-25 degrees, the hull was covered with a thick layer of shells and algae. Sand deposits played the role of a preservative, thanks to which the boat was well preserved.

For five years after this discovery, a team of archaeologists and engineers put together a plan to recover and preserve the submarine. The barge crane “Karlissa B” lifted the Civil War submarine into another century.

Raising the boat in 2000 required heroic efforts and $2.7 million. Nineteen divers worked for three months under water so murky that they had to work more by touch than by sight. Using hand-held suction dredges, divers carefully sucked out 25,000 cubic feet of sand and silt - the equivalent of 115 loaded dump trucks. When planning the lift, engineers even developed a mathematical model of the hull and the forces it would be subjected to.

Hunley lies on the seabed

The search engines, in fact, expected to find dead submariners with signs of panic, huddled under the hatches, trying to get out, but this was not the case. Each crew member was still at his post...

According to the latest information, historians have finally managed to uncover the mystery of the disappearance of the world's first submarine, which sank an enemy ship during the battle. This was probably her first and last battle.

A century and a half later, after the hull of the Hunley touched the bottom of the Atlantic off the coast of South Carolina and 15 years after the rise of the skeleton from the depths of the sea, archaeologists completed its comprehensive study.

After the recovery, experts hope to unravel the mystery of why the submarine, driven by a mechanical installation on a muscular drive, sank on February 17, 1864. It was a turbulent time, full of human tragedies. We walked last years American Civil War.

It's like unwrapping a Christmas present after 15 years of waiting, says Paul Mardikian, chief conservator at the Friends of the Hunley.

For a long time, the place where the boat died was considered unknown, until in 1995 it was discovered by one of the expeditions undertaken over the past decades. The Hunley lay on its side under a layer of silt not far from the sinking site of its victim, the Housatonic.

This largely contributed to the fact that its steel body, made from a locomotive boiler, was well preserved. The years have been kind to the underwater hunter. In 2000, it was raised from the bottom and a long process of research, restoration and subsequent conservation of this archaeological site began.

Over decades of exposure to sea water, the entire frame and structural elements of the ship were covered with a layer of sand, mineral particles, silt and rust growths, which archaeologists call nodules.

Last May, Hanley was finally ready to undergo water procedures in a sodium hydroxide solution in order to remove all extraneous growths and deposits. Then, in August, she underwent a painstaking vacuum cleaning.

To date, about 70% of the outer hull has undergone this treatment. Only those areas that seem interesting to anthropologists remained uncultivated. These are the places where the remains of the crew members and their personal belongings were discovered.

Among them were: silk scarves, which were tied instead of a tie; boots; coins; uniform buttons; a gold watch and an engraved ring that belonged to the captain of the ship; the remains of a smoking pipe still filled with tobacco; bottles, brass kerosene lamp (lantern); compass and much more.

Hanley Friends Society is a community non-profit organization, the main objective which, restoration and preservation of this historical vessel. In the course of their work, a team of restorers from Clemson University has already made a number of interesting discoveries. For example, after cleaning one of the sections of the body, they found the mark “C.N” there. Experts believe this may be an abbreviation for one of the steel mills where the body materials were made.

In addition, as Paul Mardikian adds, they found a number of interesting things that could shed light on the mystery of the death of the submarine.

I would be lying if I said that all its secrets have already been revealed. I think it's too early to talk about it. Before us is a submarine that fascinates. She's like Enigma, full of secrets.

The boat was armed with a pole mine containing 41 kg of black powder, attached to a long wooden pole mounted at the bow of the vessel.

As Paul says, scientists will gradually put together all the pieces of the big puzzle in order to eventually find out all the circumstances of what exactly happened to the twelve-meter submarine on that fateful night.

After several years of research, scientists came to the conclusion that the crew probably could have lost consciousness from the effects of water hammer when the gunpowder charge detonated somewhere away from the Hunley. Among other versions of what happened, the crew could have run out of air before the boat had time to float to the surface or that it could have drowned due to a poorly secured hatch.

Soon after she was raised, archaeologists found the first remains of the crew, as well as some of their personal belongings. Before getting them out, scientists had to extract information from the material traces left at the site of the human tragedy and which are of great interest to historians. To do this, they conducted a 3D scan of all artifacts inside the submarine.

In April 2004, thousands of people, many wearing the gray uniforms of the Confederate Army and some wearing the blue uniforms of the Confederate Army, marched from the old Charleston Shore Battery to Magnolia Cemetery, paying tribute to the fallen heroes of days long gone.

Later it will be called the last day of the Confederation.

sources

http://www.clemson.edu/glimpse/wp-content/uploads/2012/10/Glimpse_fall2012lr.pdf

http://www.qwrt.ru/news/2763

http://www.anchich.narod.ru/podvodnie_lodki/hunley.htm

http://navycollection.narod.ru/battles/Civil_war_USA/Hunley/article.html

http://www.seapeace.ru/submarines/first/362.html

Let me remind you something else about history submarine fleet: for example and for example. There you are . But the famous and, well, famous The original article is on the website InfoGlaz.rf Link to the article from which this copy was made -

Antonina Nikolaevna Gavrilova Candidate of Economic Sciences, Associate Professor; Department of Finance and Credit, Faculty of Economics, Voronezh State University
© Elitarium – Center for Distance Education

One of the most significant factors determining the efficiency of an enterprise is price policy on commodity markets. Prices provide the company with planned profits, competitiveness of products, and demand for them. Through prices, final commercial goals are realized and the efficiency of all parts of the enterprise’s production and sales structure is determined.

If the price of the product does not include a certain level of profitability, then at each subsequent stage of the capital circuit the enterprise will have less and less in cash, which will ultimately affect both production volumes and financial condition enterprises. At the same time, in a competitive environment, it is sometimes permissible to use unprofitable prices to conquer new markets, displace competing firms and attract new consumers. In order to enter new markets, an enterprise sometimes deliberately reduces revenue from product sales in order to subsequently compensate for losses by reorienting demand for its products.

If the enterprise can influence the cost of production only within very small limits, since the flexibility of the enterprise is limited, as a rule, by the spread of prices for raw materials, materials, semi-finished products and labor, as well as internal production reserves to reduce the material intensity of products, then the enterprise can set the selling price for its products within almost unlimited limits. However, the possibility of setting an unlimited price does not entail the consumer’s obligation to purchase the company’s products at the price set by him. Thus, the pricing strategy of an enterprise is the essence of the solution to the dilemma between high selling prices and large sales volumes. Let's try to consider various options for an enterprise to set prices for products sold.

Pricing and price management strategies

Price- the only element of traditional marketing that provides the company with real income. Market price is not an independent variable; its value depends on the value of other elements of marketing, as well as on the level of competition in the market and the general state of the economy. Typically, other elements of marketing also change (for example, by increasing product differentiation to maximize price or, at a minimum, the difference between price and cost).

The main objective of a pricing strategy in a market economy is to obtain maximum profit for the planned sales volume. The pricing strategy should ensure long-term satisfaction of consumer needs through the optimal combination of the internal development strategy of the enterprise and parameters external environment as part of a long-term marketing strategy.

Consequently, when developing a pricing strategy, each enterprise must determine for itself its main goals, such as, for example, maximizing revenue, price, product sales volumes or competitiveness while ensuring a certain profitability.

The pricing strategy structure consists of a pricing strategy and a price management strategy.

Pricing strategy allows you to determine the price level and maximum prices for individual product groups from a marketing perspective. Pricing should always be carried out taking into account the range and quality of products, their usefulness, significance and purchasing power of consumers and the prices of competitors. In some cases, prices for substitute products should also be taken into account.

Price management strategy there is a set of measures to maintain conditional prices while actually regulating them in accordance with the diversity and characteristics of demand and competition in the market.

Basic steps in developing a pricing strategy:

1. Price analysis(includes getting answers to the following questions):

• whether price standards have been determined;
• whether the characteristics of the consumer are taken into account;
• is price differentiation justified?
• whether the possible trend in price changes has been taken into account;
• Are pricing standards sufficiently linked to other marketing means?
• whether they allow participation in competition;
• whether flexibility of demand is taken into account when setting prices;
• whether the reaction of competitors to the price of this type of product is taken into account;
• does the price correspond to the image of the product;
• is the stage taken into account when setting the price? life cycle products;
• whether the discount rates are correctly determined;
• is there any provision for price differentiation (by region, consumer category, season, etc.);
• defining the objectives of the pricing strategy.

2. Establishing pricing goals and directions:

• pricing goals - profit, revenue, maintaining prices, countering competition;
• directions of pricing - according to price level, price regulation, discount system.

3. Final decision on pricing strategy.

In each type of market, taking into account the tasks facing the enterprise and the prevailing market conditions, pricing can solve the following problems:

• Ensuring the planned rate of profit guaranteeing competitiveness and quick sales of the enterprise’s products. Here you need to be quite careful, as this can lead to the fact that price will no longer play a positive role in marketing.
• Creating a cash reserve: if the company has problems with selling products, the influx of money may be more important than profit. This situation is typical for many enterprises today in relation to “real” money. Sometimes the value of existing inventory is such that it is better to sell it at a price equal to or below cost rather than store it in a warehouse awaiting changes in market conditions. In some cases, withholding low prices Once a firm position in the market has been achieved, the emergence of new competitors can be restrained (prices are not high enough to cover the costs of organizing new production for newcomers).
• Ensuring a given sales volume, when in order to maintain a long-term position in the market and increase sales volumes, you can sacrifice a share of profit. A situation is considered positive when a product simultaneously has qualitative advantages over competitors' products. In this case, after conquering a certain market share, prices can be slightly increased over time. An extreme form of such a policy is “exclusionary” pricing, when the price of a product is set so low that it leads to the withdrawal of some competitors from the market.
• Gaining prestige: most effective method in cases where the consumer finds it difficult to determine the difference in the quality of competitors' products. The prestigious price should accordingly belong to products that are appropriately advertised and marketed.
• Full utilization of production capacity due to “off-peak” pricing. It is effective where there are high “stable” and low “changing” prices, where demand changes with a certain frequency (for example, natural resources, transport, etc.). When demand is low, instead of leaving it unloaded production capacity, without paying back the constant part of the cost, it is necessary to stimulate demand by pricing products higher than the variable component of demand.

The problem of pricing occupies a key place in the system of market relations. After market reforms were carried out in Russia, enterprises mainly use free (market) prices, the value of which is determined by supply and demand. They may change for the same products depending on sales volume or payment terms. As a rule, the greater the sales volume per consumer, the lower the selling price per unit.

Prices can be wholesale (holiday) and retail. Let's consider their composition and structure:

• Enterprise wholesale price includes the full cost of production and the profit of the enterprise. At the enterprise's wholesale prices, the products are sold to other enterprises or trade and sales organizations.
• Industry Wholesale Price includes the wholesale price of the enterprise, value added tax and excise taxes. At the industry wholesale price, products are sold outside the industry. If products are sold through sales organizations and wholesale trading centers, then the wholesale price of the industry includes a markup to cover costs and generate profit for these organizations.
• Retail price includes industry wholesale price and trade margin(discount). If Wholesale prices are used primarily in intra-economic circulation, then at retail prices the goods are sold to the final consumer - the population.

The price level is the most important factor, affecting revenue from product sales and, consequently, the amount of profit.

Of significant importance are also terms of sales. The sooner payment occurs in accordance with concluded agreements, the faster the enterprise is able to involve funds in economic circulation and receive additional benefits, and also reduce the likelihood of non-payments. Therefore, selling at reduced prices subject to prepayment or payment upon shipment often looks preferable for an enterprise than, for example, shipping products at a higher price. high prices, but on deferred payment terms.

Pricing Methods

The following stages of the pricing process at the enterprise are distinguished:

• determining the base price, i.e. prices without discounts, surcharges, transport, insurance, service components;
• determining the price taking into account the above components, discounts, markups.

The following basic methods for calculating the base price are used, which can be used in isolation or in various combinations with each other:

1. Full cost method, or cost plus method (Full Cost Pricing, Target Pricing, Cost Plus Pricing). A certain amount corresponding to the rate of profit is added to the total amount of costs (fixed and variable). If production costs are taken as a basis, then the markup should cover sales costs and ensure profit. In any case, the surcharge includes indirect taxes and customs duties. It is used in enterprises with clearly defined product differentiation to calculate prices for traditional goods, as well as to set prices for completely new goods that have no price precedents. This method is most effective when calculating prices for goods of reduced competitiveness.

Example. A household goods manufacturing company wants to set a price for a new product. Projected annual production is 10,000 units. Presumably, the direct costs of raw materials and materials per unit of product are 1000 rubles. Direct labor costs per unit of product - 400 rubles. The company plans the amount of fixed costs to be 2000 thousand rubles. per year and hopes to receive 4000 thousand rubles. arrived. Calculate the price using the marginal cost method.

1. The planned sales revenue after reimbursement of variable costs will be: 2000 + 4000 = 6000 thousand rubles.
2. The desired result from sales after reimbursement of variable costs per unit of product: 6,000,000 / 10,000 = 600 rubles.
3. Aggregate variable costs per unit of product: 400 + 1000 = 1400 rub.
4. Price (variable costs per unit of product + desired result from sales after reimbursement of variable costs per unit of product): 600 + 1400 = 2000 rubles.

2. Manufacturing cost method (Conversion Cost Pricing). The full amount of costs for purchased raw materials, materials, and semi-finished products is increased by a percentage corresponding to the enterprise’s own contribution to increasing the cost of the product. The method is not applicable for long-term pricing decisions; does not replace, but complements the full cost method. It is used in specific conditions and decision-making cases:

• about increasing the mass of profits by increasing production volumes;
• about refusal or continuation of competition;
• about the change assortment policy when determining the most and least profitable products;
• for one-time (individual, non-mass) orders.

3. Marginal cost method (Direct Costing System) involves increasing variable costs per unit of output by a percentage that covers costs and provides a sufficient rate of profit. Provides greater pricing options: full coverage of fixed costs and maximization of profits.

4. ROI Method (Return on Investment Pricing) is based on the fact that the project must provide profitability not lower than the cost of borrowed funds. The amount of interest on the loan is added to the total cost per unit of production. The only method that takes into account the payment of financial resources necessary for the production and sale of goods. Suitable for businesses with wide range products, each of which requires its own variable costs. Suitable for both traditionally produced goods with an established market price, and for new products. It is used successfully when making decisions about the volume of production of a new product for an enterprise.

Example. The company sets the price for a new product. The projected annual production volume is 40,000 units, the estimated variable costs per unit of product are 35 rubles. total amount fixed costs - 700,000 rubles. The project will require additional financing (loan) in the amount of 1,000,000 rubles. at 17% per annum. Calculate the price using the return on investment method.

1. Variable costs per unit 35 rub. Fixed costs per unit of product: 700,000 / 40,000 = 17.5 rubles.
2. Total costs per unit of product: 35 + 17.5 = 52.5 rubles.
3. The desired profit will be: (1,000,000 × 0.17) / 40,000 = 4.25 rubles/unit. (not less).
4. Minimum acceptable price of the product: 35 + 17.5 + 4.25 = 56.75 rubles.

5. Methods of marketing assessments (Pricing based on Market Considerations). The company tries to find out the price at which the buyer definitely takes the product. Prices are focused on increasing the competitiveness of the product, and not on meeting the enterprise’s needs for financial resources to cover costs.

Example. The elasticity of demand from prices for the company's products is 1.75.

1. Determine the consequences of reducing the price by 1 ruble, if before this reduction the sales volume was 10,000 products at a price of 17.5 rubles, and total costs were equal to 100,000 rubles. (including permanent ones - 20 thousand rubles) for the entire production volume.

Sales revenue before price changes: 17.5 × 10,000 = 175,000 rubles.

Profit before price change: 175,000 - 100,000 = 75,000 rub.

Sales volume after price reduction: 10,000 × (1.75 × 1/17.5) + 10,000 = 11,000 units.

Sales revenue after price reduction: 16.5 × 11000 = 181500 rub.

Total costs of production and sales of products after price reduction:

• fixed costs: 20,000 rubles;
• variable costs: (100,000 - 20,000)/10,000) × 11,000 = 88,000 rub.
• total costs: 20,000 + 88,000 = 108,000 rubles.

Profit after price reduction: 181500 - 108000 = 73500 rub.

Thus, the price reduction led to a loss of profit in the amount of 1,500 rubles: 75,000 - 73,500 = 1,500 rubles.

2. Determine whether it is beneficial for the company to reduce the price by 1 ruble/unit if the level of fixed costs was 50% of total expenses.

Costs after a price reduction at a new level of fixed costs in the cost structure:

• fixed costs: 100,000 × 0.50 = 50,000 rubles;
• variable costs: (100,000 - 50,000)/10,000) × 11,000 = 55,000 rub.
• total costs: 50,000 + 55,000 = 105,000 rub.

Profit after price reduction: 181,500 - 105,000 = 76,500 rubles.

Thus, reducing the price is beneficial, since it leads to additional profit in the amount of 1,500 rubles: 76,500 - 75,000 = 1,500 rubles.

It is important for every organization to properly price what it offers. For this purpose, various pricing methods are used to most accurately determine the price of goods and services.

Basic Pricing Principles

Basic principles are the rules for forming the cost of goods that will apply to any method used:

• Prices are close to labor costs in production.
• The cost must be such that the enterprise’s income ensures normal production conditions.
• When setting prices, you need to focus on complex indicators: the level of demand, competitors’ offers, the ratio of world prices.

When making calculations, the characteristics of the product and its quality are taken into account.

Full cost method

The full cost method is the most commonly used method. It involves adding a premium to the unit cost of goods. The size of the latter depends on the established level of profit characteristic of a particular production. The allowance includes the following components:

• Enterprise profit.
• Other taxes.
• Various duties.

The main advantage of the method is simplicity. However, when calculating, a premium is applied in solid form, and therefore the result is not always accurate. Such pricing does not take into account all factors of changes in the cost of a product: competitors’ prices for similar products and current demand.

Let's consider the advantages of the method:

• Most large industries know more about their costs than about the demand for their products, and therefore this method will be very convenient.
• This is the most best option to calculate prices for products for which demand remains stable.
• The method is used by most enterprises, including competitors, which ensures approximately the same prices for the product line. This reduces competition on the cost factor.

The method also has disadvantages:

• Consumers may not buy a product at the calculated cost, since the calculations do not take into account other indicators: demand and the actions of competitors.
• This is a method in which company management costs play a role, rather than production costs, which makes it conditional and biased in finding indicators of the product’s contribution to the organization’s income.

The method is commonly used by large food processing plants. It is optimal for selling goods with low competitiveness. These are products of mass demand that are always bought: bread, milk, etc.

Example

The company sells chairs. The planned production coverage per year is 10,000 chairs. The cost of raw materials per unit of goods is equal to a thousand rubles, direct labor costs are 400 rubles. The planned amount of annual expenses is 2,000,000 rubles, income is 4,000,000 rubles. The following calculations are carried out:

• 2,000,000 + 4,000,000 = 6 million rubles.
• 6 million/10,000 = 600 rubles.
• 400 + 1,000 = 1,400 rubles.
• 600 + 1,400 = 2,000 rub.

2,000 rubles is the optimal price for one chair.

ROI method

The return on investment method allows you to take into account the cost of monetary resources. Its basis is costs. The method is optimal for enterprises with a large assortment of goods. It allows you to reduce through the effective use of available resources, as well as increase profits by increasing production. However, the method is used quite rarely, due to labor-intensive calculations.

Example

The planned production volume is 40 thousand units, variable costs per product are 35 rubles. The total amount of fixed expenses is 700,000 rubles. To set up production, a loan of one million rubles is taken out at 17% per annum. The following calculations are made:

• 700 thousand/40 thousand – 17.5 rubles. (constant expenses per unit).
• 35 + 17.5 = 52.5 rub. (total expenses).
• (Million * 0.17) / 40 thousand = 4.25 rubles / unit.
• 35 + 17.5 + 4.25 = 56.75 rub.

The last indicator is the minimum cost of the product at which the company will receive income and also maintain its creditworthiness.

Marketing assessment method

The essence of the marketing evaluation method is a preliminary determination of the cost at which the consumer will buy the product. The basis of calculations is sales growth and increasing the competitiveness of products, and not covering production costs.

Example

The elasticity of demand is 1.75. The manager is faced with the task of calculating the consequences of reducing the cost by a ruble. At the moment, 10,000 units of goods are being sold at a cost of 17.5. Total expenses amount to 100,000 rubles (of which constant expenses amount to 20,000 rubles). The following calculations are carried out:

• 17.5 * 100,000 = 175,000 rub. (revenue).
• 175,000 – 100,000 = 75,000 rubles. (profit).
• 10,000 * (1.75 * 1/17.5) + 10,000 = 11,000 pieces (sales scale).

The figures are then calculated after the cost has been reduced:

• 16.5 * 11,000 = 181,500 rubles. (revenue).
• Fixed costs: 20,000 rub.
• Variables: (100,000 – 20,000)/10,000) * 11 thousand = 88,000 rub.
• General: 20,000 + 88,000 = 108,000 rub.
• 181,500 – 108,000 = 73,500 rubles.

The price decrease provoked a loss of profit in the amount of 1,500 rubles (75,000 - 73,500).

Other pricing methods

There are many pricing methods. The ones outlined above are the main and most frequently used. However, there are many other ways:

• Sealed bidding method. In a closed auction, the order is awarded to the one who sets the lowest price. This principle affects pricing. The contractor must set a minimum cost at which income will ensure the functioning of the company.
• The skimming method. Typically used when pricing new items. First, the manufacturer sets the highest possible price. At the same time, demand indicators are monitored. As soon as they begin to decline, the price is reduced to attract a new “wave” of consumers.”
• Manufacturing cost method. It is a complement to the full cost method. When calculating, expenses on raw materials are multiplied by a percentage equal to the company’s contribution to increasing product prices. The method can be used to determine the profitability of products. Relevant when working with individual orders.
• Marginal cost method. Variable costs per unit are multiplied by a percentage sufficient to cover the enterprise's expenses and generate profit. The purpose of using this method is to fully cover costs and maximize profits.

NOTE! The use of these methods is usually situational.

Which pricing method should you choose?

The required method is selected based on conditions such as:

• Demand for products (stable or unstable).
• Behavior of competitors.
• Mass production of goods.
• The purpose of pricing (maximizing profits, attracting consumers, introducing into a new market).
• The level of enterprise costs in production.
• Scope of work.

Some of the methods (for example, the manufacturing cost method) can be used inconsistently, but situationally, if there is an immediate need.

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