Psychological foundations of personnel motivation. Textbook: Motivation Motivation of staff workbook
ANNOTATION
The manual systematically and consistently reveals a wide range of fundamental provisions of modern interdisciplinary humanitarian knowledge, describes conceptual and applied mechanisms of personnel motivation as the basis for increasing the efficiency and competitiveness of organizations, assesses the impact of sociocultural and gender factors on the dynamics of the value of human capital, and explores the problems of social responsibility and audit motivational state of organizations.
Recommended for training undergraduates in the following areas: psychology, pedagogy, social work, sociology, management, economics, as well as for advanced training and retraining of specialists in the system of additional education. The manual will be useful to students, graduate students, doctoral students, as well as researchers and specialists in the management of socio-economic systems.
The textbook is an electronic version of the book:
Personnel motivation in a modern organization: Textbook / Ed. ed. S. Yu. Trapitsyna. – St. Petersburg: Book House LLC, 2007. – 240 p.
Chapter 1
MODELS AND MECHANISMS OF MOTIVATION FOR LABOR ACTIVITY.
1.1. Basic theories of motivation
1.1.1. Content theories of motivation
1.1.2. Process theories and motivation mechanisms
1.2. Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation
1.3. Mechanisms for using motivation in management practice
1.3.1. Stimulating the work activity of personnel
1.3.2. Modern types of personnel incentives at business enterprises.
1.3.3. Mechanisms of moral stimulation of work activity
Control questions
Creative tasks
Literature
Literature recommended for self-study
Chapter 2
SOCIO-CULTURAL AND GENDER ASPECTS OF HUMAN CAPITAL
AS MOTIVATION FACTORS
2.1. Personnel motivation from a concept perspective
human capital
2.2. Cluster analysis of human capital
Control questions
Creative tasks
Literature
Chapter 3
MOTIVATION AND SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY
3.1. Concept and types of social responsibility
3.2. Approaches to social responsibility management
3.3. Increasing staff motivation based on ethical and moral standards
3.4. Social programs of the organization as a factor of personnel motivation
3.5. Features of social responsibility in Russian organizations
Control questions
Creative tasks
Literature
Chapter 4
AUDIT OF THE MOTIVATIONAL STATE OF THE ORGANIZATION
4.1. Goals, objectives and content of the audit of the motivational state of the organization
4.2. Development of a program and plan for auditing the motivational state of the organization
4.3. Audit areas
motivational state of the organization
Control questions
Creative tasks
Literature
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The textbook outlines the theoretical foundations, features of motivation and incentives at various stages of the life cycle of an organization. The process of formation, classification of motives and factors influencing the motivation of work, the mechanism of formation of the motivational core of the organization's personnel are considered. Covered: classification of incentives, directions for stimulating work activity; material monetary and non-monetary incentives; organization and regulation of remuneration, including additional and incentive pay, and much more. The essence and technology of the process of formation and management of the system of motivation and stimulation of labor activity are revealed.
The textbook is intended for students of economic universities, as well as for graduate students, doctoral students, teachers, students of additional professional education, and can also be useful to heads of organizations and employees of personnel management services.
The subject of study of the discipline “Motivation and stimulation of work activity” is the organizational, economic and socio-psychological nature of motives and incentives, motivation and stimulation, their relationship, interaction and interdependence in the process of work activity; a system of incentives and motives that constitute, on the one hand, the motivational core of an individual and, on the other, the motivational core of the organization’s personnel as a whole; mechanisms of motivation and stimulation of work activity, setting in motion both material monetary and non-monetary, as well as intangible motives and incentives; technology for forming a system of motivation and stimulation of work activity and organizing effective management of this system.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PREFACE 3
Chapter 1 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF MOTIVATION AND STIMULATION OF LABOR ACTIVITY 7
1.1. EVOLUTION OF VIEWS ON MOTIVATION AND STIMULATION OF LABOR ACTIVITY WITH THE DEVELOPMENT OF THEORIES OF PERSONNEL MANAGEMENT 7
1.2. THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS OF MOTIVATION AND STIMULATION OF LABOR ACTIVITY 14
1.2.1. Schools of the theory of motivation and stimulation of human life 14
1.2.2. Theories of motivation and stimulation of work activity 16
1.3. CONCEPTS OF MOTIVATION AND STIMULATION OF LABOR ACTIVITY 30
1.4 PHYSIOLOGICAL, PSYCHOLOGICAL AND SOCIAL COMPONENTS OF MOTIVATION AND STIMULATION OF LABOR ACTIVITY 43
1.4.1. Physiological component of motivation and stimulation 43
1.4.2. Psychological component of motivation and stimulation 45
1.4.3. Sociological component of motivation and stimulation 52
1.5. BASIC CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS OF MOTIVATION AND STIMULATION OF LABOR ACTIVITY 61
1.5.1. Basic terms and essence of work motivation 61
1.5.2. Basic terms and essence of labor activity stimulation 70
1.6. RELATIONSHIP AND INTERACTION OF THE CONCEPTS “STIMULUS1. “STIMULATION”, “MOTIVE”, “MOTIVATION” IN THE PROCESS OF LABOR ACTIVITY OF THE ORGANIZATION’S PERSONNEL 73
1.7. THE PLACE AND ROLE OF MOTIVATION AND STIMULATION OF LABOR ACTIVITY IN THE PERSONNEL MANAGEMENT SYSTEM OF AN ORGANIZATION 7B
1.7.1. Historical excursion, the place of motivation and incentives in the 7B personnel management system
1.7.2. Distinctive features of motivation and incentive systems for domestic organizations 81
1.8. FEATURES OF MOTIVATION AND STIMULATION AT DIFFERENT STAGES OF THE ORGANIZATION LIFE CYCLE 84
1.8.1. Stages of the organization's life cycle and objectives of personnel policy B4
1.8.2. The influence of the stage of the organization’s life cycle on the system of motivation and incentives 91
Test questions and practice tasks 97
Chapter 2 MOTIVATION OF LABOR ACTIVITY 100
2.1. FORMATION PROCESS, FUNCTIONS AND CLASSIFICATION OF MOTIVES FOR WORK 100
2.2. MATERIAL AND SPIRITUAL NEEDS IN THE MOTIVATIONAL PROCESS 106
2.3. STRUCTURE AND COMPONENTS OF WORK MOTIVATION 113
2.3.1. Types of motivation structure 113
2.3.2. Components, methods and goals of motivation 116
2.4. FACTORS AFFECTING WORK MOTIVATION 119
2.5. MECHANISMS OF WORK MOTIVATION 131
2.5.1. Intrapersonal mechanisms of formation and functioning of work motivation 131
2.5.2. Methods for analyzing mechanisms of motivation for work 136
2.6. (NORMATING THE MOTIVATIONAL CORE OF THE ORGANIZATION’S PERSONNEL 146
2.6.1. The essence and characteristics of the motivational core of the organization’s personnel 146
2.6.2. Factors influencing the formation of the motivational core of the organization’s personnel 152
2.6.3. Management of the motivational core of the organization's personnel 155
2.6.4. The effectiveness of the motivational core of the organization’s personnel 157
2.7. MOTIVES FOR STAFF PARTICIPATION IN THE ACTIVITIES OF THE ORGANIZATION 159
2.7.1. The motive of participation and models of corporate governance 159
2.7.2. Motive for participation in the organization's profits 165
2.7.3. Motive for participation in the property of an organization 172
2.7.4. The motive for participation in the management of an organization 177
2.7.5. Motive for participation in the organization’s income and losses 180
Test questions and practice tasks 182
Chapter 3 STIMULATING LABOR ACTIVITY 184
3.1. CLASSIFICATION OF INCENTIVES AND DIRECTIONS FOR STIMULATING LABOR ACTIVITY 1B4
3.2. MATERIAL MONETARY AND NON-MONETARY INCENTIVES OF LABOR ACTIVITY 168
3.2.1. The essence of material monetary incentives for work 188
3.2.2. Essence, economic content and functions of wages 194
3.2.3. Factors affecting wages 205
3.2.4. The essence of material non-monetary incentives for work 210
3.3. ORGANIZATION OF REMUNERATION 19
3.3.1. The essence, principles and elements of the organization of remuneration 219
3.3.2. Labor rationing 222
3.3.3. Terms of remuneration 225
3.3.4. Forms and systems of remuneration 238
3.4. ADDITIONAL AND INCENTIVE RAY 246
3.4.1. The essence of surcharges and allowances 246
3.4.2. The procedure for providing additional payments and allowances 249
3.4.3. Organization of bonuses 251
3.5. WAGE REGULATION 259
3.5.1. System of collective bargaining regulation of wages 259
3.5.2. State regulation of wages 269
3.5.3. Regulation of wages taking into account supply and demand in the labor market 282
3.6. NON-MATERIAL INCENTIVES OF LABOR ACTIVITY 287
3.6.1. The essence and main directions of non-material incentives 2B7
3.6.2. Moral stimulation 290
3.6.3. Organizational incentives 300
3.6.4. Stimulation with free time 309
Test questions and practice tasks 316
Chapter 4 FORMATION OF A SYSTEM OF MOTIVATION AND STIMULATION OF LABOR ACTIVITY 319
4.1. ESSENCE AND BASIC ELEMENTS OF THE SYSTEM OF MOTIVATION AND STIMULATION OF LABOR ACTIVITY 319
4.2. TECHNOLOGY FOR DIAGNOSTICS OF THE SYSTEM OF MOTIVATION AND STIMULATION OF STAFF EXISTING IN THE ORGANIZATION 333
4.3. TECHNOLOGY FOR FORMING GOALS AND PRINCIPLES OF ORGANIZATIONAL POLICY IN THE FIELD OF MOTIVATION AND STIMULATION OF PERSONNEL WORK 343
4.4. TECHNOLOGY FOR DEVELOPMENT OF A SYSTEM OF MATERIAL MONETARY INCENTIVES (WAGES) 346
4.4.1. Categorization of organization personnel 346
4.4.2. Description, analysis, assessment and classification of jobs [positions] 347
4.4.3. Grading of jobs (positions) 354
4.4.4. Establishment of a constant part of remuneration (basic salaries), allowances and additional payments 356
4.4.5. Development of the variable part of the wage system 361
4.5. TECHNOLOGY FOR DEVELOPING MATERIAL NON-MONETARY INCENTIVES OF STAFF (SOCIAL PACKAGE) E6V
4.6. TECHNOLOGY FOR DEVELOPING A SYSTEM OF NON-MATERIAL INCENTIVES OF STAFF 375
4.6.1. Methods for analyzing the need for non-material incentives for employees 375
4.6.2. Formation of a system of non-material incentives 379
4.7. TECHNOLOGY FOR DEVELOPMENT OF INTERNAL REGULATIVE DOCUMENTS REGULATING THE SYSTEM OF MOTIVATION AND INCENTIVENESS OF STAFF 384
4.8. MANAGEMENT OF MOTIVATION AND STIMULATION OF LABOR ACTIVITY 392
4.8.1. Methodological and methodological foundations for managing motivation and stimulation of work activity 392
4.8.2. Organization of management of motivation and stimulation of work activity 399
Test questions and practice tasks 409
REFERENCES 412
APPLICATIONS
EXAMPLES OF INTERNAL REGULATORY DOCUMENTS. REGULATING THE SYSTEM OF MOTIVATION AND STIMULATION OF THE ORGANIZATION 415
Appendix 1. Regulations on the personnel of the organization 416
Appendix 2. Regulations on the organization’s personnel management service 422
Appendix 3. Social Code of OAO LUKOIL 424
Appendix 4. Internal labor regulations for employees of the organization 441
Appendix 5. Rules of business conduct for the organization’s personnel (code of business ethics] 460
Appendix 6. Diagnostics and formation of a motivation and incentive system for the Raduga company 462
Appendix 7. Regulations on the policy of motivation and stimulation of one of the Moscow organizations 474
Appendix 8. Regulations on remuneration of personnel of CJSC Polyus 483
Appendix 8. Regulations on remuneration of employees of JSC f Russian company" 480
Appendix 10. Organization of a system of motivation and stimulation of work activity at Union Vinyl 487
Appendix 11. Questionnaire “Organizational personnel and labor management” - 508
1. The study of human motivation and motives. Methods for studying motivation and motives
The fulfillment of the tasks facing psychological science to a certain extent depends on how successful the study of various aspects of human activity, the patterns of its change and the possibilities of regulation in the right direction will be.
Considering human motivation as a psychological phenomenon, scientists have encountered many difficulties, which required science to more intensively develop human problems in both theoretical and practical terms. The need to understand the patterns of functioning of the psyche and to know how they determine human behavior in various situations has become more obvious.
As is known, human mental development occurs in conditions of a very complex and diverse relationship between biological and social; it is determined by the interrelation of organic inclinations and the activity of the individual, realized in specific socio-historical conditions (Brushlinsky A.B., 1974). Being included in historically established forms of human activity, any human activity is subject to the laws of social development.
The study of motivational processes in humans is, in essence, the study of the individual in his activities. The specificity of human activity is that it is always purposeful. The ability to set goals is one of the fundamental features of man as a rational being. Expressing the active side of consciousness and often determining the method and nature of a person’s actions, the goal that a person sets for himself integrates into a single whole the complex structure of regulatory processes of behavior, determines that a person performs a given act and not another. S.L. pays great attention to the relationship between motives and goals of activity. Rubinstein. It is this circumstance, in his opinion, that determines the conscious mental life of the individual and draws through it, although changing in relation to circumstances, but still a single life line. And that is why, when studying motivation, due attention should be paid to the psychological analysis of activity.
The conditioning of the human psyche by historically established forms of activity suggests the need to consider the problem of motivation also from the perspective of the connection and interdependence of activity and consciousness. The activity of human activity is determined not only by the vital needs of the body, but is also due to the awareness of the dependence of the satisfaction of individual requests on the implementation of certain actions aimed at satisfying both the needs of the person himself and the needs of society... This emphasizes the most important role of consciousness in the activities of man as a social being by nature .
P.M. Yakobson draws attention to the obvious need for strictly psychological (as opposed to neurophysiological) methods of causal explanation of human behavior. It is impossible, for example, to call the instability of the nervous system the cause of criminal behavior, since it remains unclear why many people with similar psycho-physiological data do not commit such actions.
Over the course of more than half a century, much research has been carried out in the West on the problem of motivation of behavior, which developed mainly within three directions: behaviorism, psychoanalysis, Gestalt psychology, as well as later and modern modifications of these trends. Many foreign theories of motivation are based on experiments with animals, so in some cases direct extrapolation to humans is impossible. In addition, the question arises: can these theories be considered truly motivational at all? Are they not biological theories of the determination of behavior?
Growing interest in the psychology of personality, in complex dynamic changes in its activities and actions, makes the study of the motivation of human behavior an urgent task of psychological science. Obviously, a critical examination of existing points of view on the problem and the search for a new approach to solving it are required. This will be addressed in future lectures and seminars.
Everyone knows how important it is for people to know each other’s motives, especially in joint activities. However, identifying the reasons for a person’s actions and actions is not a simple matter, associated with both objective and subjective difficulties. The study of a person’s psychological make-up includes clarifying the following questions:
What needs are inherent in this person;
By what means does he prefer to satisfy his needs?
What situations or conditions trigger this or that behavior;
What has a stronger influence on motivation – existing needs or a sense of duty and responsibility;
What is the orientation of the personality?
The answer to most of these questions can only be obtained by using a variety of methods for studying motives and personality.
Psychologists have developed several approaches to studying human motivation and motives: experiment, observation, conversation, survey, questionnaire, analysis of activity products, etc. All these methods can be divided into three groups:
1. A survey of the subject carried out in one form or another;
2. Assessment of behavior and its causes from the outside (observation method);
3. experimental methods.
In addition, there are three general methodological approaches to the study of motives: indirect, direct and projective.
In the first approach, the research procedure requires the subject to perform such actions, the diagnostic intent of which remains unclear to the subject. For example, the starting point of a motivational test under controlled conditions may be selectivity in remembering events, unequal awareness in different areas, and the intensity of the desire for something.
Procedures for the indirect approach to studying motives are sometimes called “objective” tests. The methodology for such tests has not been sufficiently developed, and the procedures of the indirect approach have not yet found widespread use.
The second, direct approach is based on the subjects’ own statements... This procedure has serious drawbacks. Firstly, the answers can be distorted (unconsciously) or deliberately falsified by the subject, and secondly, the answers require self-assessment, which is associated with many difficulties.
Compliance with the general methodological principles of the survey and careful development of the tests themselves can prevent the influence of most of the reasons leading to distortion of behavior, or promptly reveal these distortions.
The difficulty of self-assessment can be eliminated if the test is designed correctly and its questions do not require deep self-analysis.
The third approach to studying motives is that the subject is offered multi-semantic material. These ambiguous situations are perceived differently by subjects with different motivational spheres... A significant drawback of these procedures is that the statements of the subjects can be interpreted quite arbitrarily by the experimenter and there are no objective criteria.
In the practice of studying motives of behavior, questionnaires and tests that implement the second approach are most widely used. The information obtained during this procedure is in the nature of direct reactions to verbal indicators. The indicators are questions to which the subject answers affirmatively or negatively, or statements that he considers true or false. Possible answers are usually given in advance and only require marking with a symbol.
Tests for the study of motives are built on the assumption that the reasons that motivate behavior are recognized by the person and can be qualitatively assessed. Thus, motive tests are psychometric procedures aimed at certain degrees of indicative expression.
The nature of motives is determined by a large number of individual indicators (from 15 to 40), having the same focus. The answer to one indicator is not considered reliable enough.
A large number of indicators contributes to the accuracy of the structural and measurement models.
However, there are no ideal methods that would allow us to trace the entire process of constructing motives, to identify its essential points and thereby the structure of the motive of a particular action or deed. Hardly ever. Basically, the methods are aimed at identifying personal dispositions (personality properties, attitudes), which, as dominant tendencies, can influence decision making and the formation of intentions, but it is by no means known whether they influenced the decision specifically in this case.
It should be noted that identifying a person’s motives is difficult, but not hopeless. It requires the integrated use of various techniques that make it possible to identify the underlying causes of human behavior (needs, motivational attitudes, current state), and not just goals. However, it should still be taken into account that, like any psychological diagnosis, determining the motive of behavior is a probabilistic process, which in some cases does not provide an absolute guarantee of the correctness of the diagnosis.
2. Characteristics of the main theories of motivation in domestic and foreign psychology
The scientific study of the causes of human and animal activity, their determination, was started by the great thinkers of antiquity - Aristotle, Heraclitus, Democritus, Lucretius, Plato, Socrates, who mentioned “need as the teacher of life.” Democritus, for example, considered need (need) as the main driving force that not only set in motion emotional experiences, but made the human mind sophisticated, allowing the acquisition of language, speech and the habit of work. Without needs, a person would not be able to come out of a wild state.
Heraclitus examined in detail the motivating forces, drives, and needs. In his opinion, needs are determined by living conditions, so pigs rejoice in dirt, donkeys prefer straw to gold, birds bathe in dust and ash, etc. Speaking about the connection between incentive forces and reason, Heraclitus noted that every desire is bought at a price, therefore the abuse of desires leads to its weakening. At the same time, moderation in satisfying needs contributes to the development and improvement of a person’s intellectual abilities.
Socrates wrote that every person has needs, desires, and aspirations. At the same time, the main thing is not what a person’s aspirations are, but what place they occupy in his life. A person cannot overcome his nature and get out of dependence on other people if he is not able to control his needs, desires and behavior. People who are unable to tame their impulses are slaves to bodily passions and external reality. Therefore, a person should strive to minimize needs and satisfy them only when they become truly urgent. All this would bring a person closer to a god-like state, and he could direct the main efforts of his will and mind to the search for truth and the meaning of life.
For Plato, needs, drives and passions form the “desirable or inferior” soul, which is like a herd and requires guidance from the “reasonable and noble soul.”
Aristotle made significant progress in explaining the mechanisms of human behavior. He believed that aspirations are always associated with a goal in which an object is presented in the form of an image or thought that has a beneficial or harmful meaning for the organism. On the other hand, aspirations are determined by needs and the associated feelings of pleasure and displeasure, the function of which is to communicate and evaluate the suitability or unsuitability of a given object for the life of the organism. Thus, any volitional movement and emotional state that determines human activity have natural foundations.
The views of Lucretius are also close to these views. The sources of will, in his opinion, are desires arising from needs.
The Dutch philosopher B. Spinoza considered the main motivating force of behavior to be affects, to which he attributed primarily the drives associated with both the body and the soul. If attraction is realized, then it turns into desire.
French materialists of the late 10th century attached particular importance to needs as the main sources of human activity. E. Condillac understood needs as anxiety caused by the lack of something leading to pleasure. Thanks to needs, he believed, all mental and physical habits arise.
P. Holbach also emphasized the certain role of needs in human life, but did it deeper and more consistently. Needs, he wrote, are the driving factor of our passions, will, and mental activity. Through motives, which are real or imaginary objects with which the well-being of the organism is connected, needs activate our mind, feelings and will and direct them to take certain measures to maintain the existence of the organism. A person’s needs are continuous, and this circumstance serves as the source of his constant activity. P. Holbach, in the doctrine of needs, argued that external causes alone are sufficient to explain human activity, and completely rejected the traditional idea of idealism about the spontaneous activity of consciousness, cognitive, emotional and activity.
K. Helvetius considered passions to be the source of human activity. Physical or natural passions arise from the satisfaction or unsatisfaction of needs. He identified the latter with sensations.
N.G. assigned a major role to the needs in understanding human behavior. Chernyshevsky. Only through them, he believed, can one understand the relationship of the subject to the object, determine the role of material and economic conditions for the mental and moral development of the individual. He associated the development of cognitive abilities with the development of needs. The primary ones are organic needs, the satisfaction of which also leads to the emergence of moral and aesthetic needs. Animals are endowed only with physical needs, which determine their behavior and mental life.
R. Woodworth also assigned a significant role in human mental activity to the needs. Thanks to them, the body turns out to be sensitive to some stimuli and indifferent to others, which, thus, not only determines the nature of motor reactions, but also affects the perception of the surrounding world (here the views of R. Woodworth and A.A. Ukhtomsky on the dominant and, according to Essentially, need is considered as a dominant source of excitation).
In the 20s and subsequent years of our century, theories of motivation that relate only to humans appeared in Western psychology (K. Levin, G. Allport). Here, along with organic ones, secondary (psychogenic) needs that arise as a result of training and upbringing are highlighted (G. Murray). These include the need to achieve success, affiliation and aggression, the need for independence and opposition, respect and protection, dominance and attraction of attention, the need to avoid failures and harmful influences, etc. A. Maslow also gave his classification of needs (A. Maslow, 1954).
As we see in the twentieth century, the concept of “motivation” remains closely related to the concept of “needs”. At the same time, need theories of motivation were contrasted with the views of behaviorists on motivation, according to which behavior unfolds according to the “stimulus-response” scheme.
Behaviorists noted that the term “motivation” is too general and not scientific enough, that experimental psychology under this name actually studies needs and inclinations (drives) that are of a purely physiological nature. Behaviorists explain behavior through the “stimulus-response” scheme, considering the stimulus as an active source of the body’s reaction. For them, the problem of motivation is not a problem, since, from their point of view, the dynamic condition of behavior is the reactivity of the organism, that is, its ability to respond in a specific way to stimuli. True, it is noted that the body does not always react to an external stimulus, and therefore a factor (called motivation) has been introduced into the scheme to explain differences in reactivity. But again, this factor was reduced to purely physiological mechanisms: differences in the body’s sensitivity to a given stimulus, i.e., to sensation thresholds. Based on this, motivation began to be understood as a state whose function is to lower the threshold of the body’s reactivity to certain stimuli. In this case, the motive is considered as an energizer or sensitizer.
The most prominent representative of dynamic psychology, the American R. Woodworth (1918), criticizing behaviorists, interpreted the response to external influence as a complex and changeable act in which past experience and the uniqueness of external and internal existing conditions are integrated. This synthesis is achieved through mental activity, the basis of which is the desire for a goal (need).
In everyday life, it is generally accepted that human behavior is determined by a plan and the desire to implement this plan and achieve a goal. This scheme, as noted by J. Nutten (1984), corresponds to reality and takes into account complex human behavior, while behaviorists take only an elementary mental reaction as a model. It is necessary to remember, writes J. Nuytten, that behavior is also a search for absent or not yet existing situations and objects, and not just a reaction to them. This is the basis for the views of psychologists who consider motivation as an independent, specific mechanism for organizing human and animal behavior.
Even W. James, at the end of the last century, identified several types of decision-making (formation of intention, desire for action) as a conscious, deliberate motivational act. Objects of thought that delay the final action or favor it, he calls the reasons, or motives, of a given decision.
In the second half of the twentieth century, the motivational concepts of J. Rotter (1954), G. Kelly (1955), H. Heckhausen (1955), J. Atkinson (1964) appeared. ), D. McClelland (1971), which are characterized by the recognition of the leading role of consciousness in the determination of human behavior. Cognitive theories of motivation led to the introduction of new motivational concepts into scientific use: social needs, life goals, cognitive factors, cognitive dissonance, values, expectation of success, fear of failure, level of aspiration.
R. Cattell (1957) constructed a “dynamic lattice of aspirations.” He identified motivational dispositions such as “ergs” (from the Greek eggon - energy, work), in which he saw a kind of biologically determined drives, and “engrams”, the nature of which is contained not in the biological structure, but in the life history of the subject.
In many foreign motivational concepts, decision-making becomes the central mental process that explains behavior.
Psychoanalytic theories of motivation. A new stage in the study of the determination of behavior began at the end of the 19th century in connection with the emergence of the teachings of Sigmund F. (S. Freud, 1895) about the unconscious and human drives. He assigned a decisive role in the organization of behavior to the unconscious core of mental life, formed by powerful drives. Mainly sexual (libido) and aggressive, demanding immediate satisfaction and blocked by the personality censor - the “Super-I”, i.e., internalized during the socialization of the individual by social norms and values. If for W. James motivation was to a decisive extent associated with conscious decision-making (taking into account many external and internal factors), then for S. Freud and his followers in the determination of behavior the decisive role was assigned to the unconscious, the suppression of whose impulses by the “Super-I” leads to neuroses.
W. McDougall (1923), who believed that a person has eighteen instincts, also developed his theory in the same direction. He put forward the “hormic” concept, according to which the driving force of behavior, including social behavior, is a special innate (instinctive) energy (“forge”), which determines the nature of the perception of objects, creates emotional arousal and directs the mental and physical actions of the body towards the goal. Each instinct has its own emotion, which from a short-term state turns into a feeling as a stable and organized system of dispositions - predispositions to action. Thus, he tried to explain the behavior of an individual by the desire for a goal that was initially inherent in the depths of his psychophysiological organization.
A number of foreign psychologists consider the stages of the motivational process within the framework of the Gestalt approach. We are talking about a cycle of contact, the essence of which is the actualization and satisfaction of needs during a person’s interaction with the external environment: the dominant need appears in the foreground of consciousness as a figure against the background of personal experience and, satisfied, dissolves again in the background. In this process, up to six phases are distinguished: sensation of a stimulus, its awareness - excitement (decision, emergence of an impulse) - beginning of an action - contact with an object - retreat (return to the original state). In this case, the marked phases can be clearly differentiated or overlap each other.
Among the domestic psychologists of the early twentieth century who raised questions about the motivation of human behavior, it should be noted, first of all, A.F. Lazursky, who published the book “Essay on the Science of Character” in 1906. It devotes quite a lot of space to a thorough discussion of issues related to desires and drives, the struggle of motives and decision-making, the stability of decisions (intentions) and the ability to internally delay incentive impulses; The stated provisions have not lost their relevance today.
Another major Russian psychologist, N. N. Lange (1914), also discussed in his works about the drives, desires and “wants” of a person, in connection with questions about the will and in acts of the left. In particular, he gave his understanding of the differences between drives and “wants,” believing that the latter are drives that turn into active actions. For him, “wanting” is an active will.
In the 20s and later, issues of behavioral motivation were considered by V.M. Vorovsky (1927), N.Yu. Voitonis (1929, 1935), who stood in biologization positions. L.S. In his works, Vygotsky also did not ignore the problem of determination and motivation of human behavior. Thus, in the textbook “Pedology of the Adolescent” (1930), he devotes a large chapter to the question of the essence of interests and their changes in adolescence. He believed that the problem of the relationship between drives and interests is the key to understanding the mental development of a teenager, which is determined primarily by the evolution of the child’s interests and behavior, and changes in the structure of the direction of his behavior. Despite some one-sidedness on the issue of interests, what was undoubtedly positive in his views was the belief that interests are not skills, as many psychologists believed at that time. In another work - “History of the development of higher mental functions” - L. S. Vygotsky pays great attention to the issue of the “struggle of motives.” He was one of the first to distinguish between motive and incentive and spoke about voluntary motivation. In the 40s, motivation, from the perspective of the “attitude theory,” was considered by D.N. Uznadze (1966), who said that the source of activity is a need, which he understood very broadly, namely as something that is necessary for the body, but which it does not currently possess.
The development and development of the theory of motivation was also carried out by the famous domestic psychologist A.N. Leontyev. The difference between this theory is that it is based on the basic principles of dialectical materialism and uses the main thesis of this philosophical direction: it is not consciousness that determines being, human activity, but, on the contrary, being, human activity determines his consciousness. Leontyev proposed the following scheme of activity: activity – action – operation – psychophysiological functions. The scheme correlates with the structure of the motivational sphere (motive - goal - condition).
The main concepts of this theory are activity, consciousness and personality. The central place in this hierarchical structure is occupied by action, which is the main unit of activity analysis. Action is a process aimed at realizing a goal, which, in turn, can be defined as an image of the desired result. Thus, action is a conscious manifestation of human activity. The main characteristics of the concept of “action” are four components. First, action includes as a necessary component an act of consciousness in the form of setting and maintaining a goal. Secondly, action is at the same time an act of behavior. Thirdly, the psychological theory of activity introduces the principle of activity through the concept of action, contrasting it with the principle of reactivity. The concept of “reactivity” implies a response or reaction to the influence of any stimulus. Fourthly, the concept of “action” brings human activity into the objective and social world.
Based on the characteristics of the concept of “action” as the main element of activity analysis, the fundamental principles of the psychological theory of activity are formed:
1. Consciousness cannot be considered as closed in itself: it must manifest itself in activity (the principle of “blurring” the circle of consciousness).
2. Behavior cannot be considered in isolation from human consciousness (the principle of the unity of consciousness and behavior).
3. Activity is an active, purposeful process (the principle of activity).
4. Human actions are objective, their goals are social in nature (the principle of objective human activity and the principle of its social conditionality).
The action itself cannot be considered as the element of the initial level from which the activity is formed. Actions are a complex element, which often itself consists of many smaller ones. This situation is explained by the fact that every action is determined by a goal. Human goals are not only varied, but also of different scales. There are large goals that are divided into smaller private goals, and those, in turn, can be divided into smaller private goals, etc.
Each action can be performed in different ways, i.e. using different methods. The way an action is performed is called an operation. In turn, the method of performing an action depends on the conditions. Under different conditions, different operations may be used to achieve the same goal. Conditions are both external circumstances and the capabilities of the acting subject himself. Therefore, the goal in this theory is a task. Operations are larger units of activity than actions. Operations are little or not realized. The level of operations is the level of automatic actions and skills. There are two ways to form operations: 1) through adaptation and adaptation to living conditions and activities; 2) conscious actions that have become skills thanks to automation. The first path is practically not realized, the second is on the verge of consciousness. It is difficult to distinguish a clear line between operations and actions.
The third level of the structure of activity is psychophysiological functions - physiological mechanisms for ensuring mental processes, therefore, a person is a biosocial being. The course of mental processes is inseparable from processes at the physiological level, which provide the body’s capabilities, without which most mental functions cannot be carried out. These are sensation abilities, motor abilities, the ability to record traces of past influences and a number of innate mechanisms. Psychophysiological functions constitute the organic foundation of activity processes. Without them, not only specific actions are impossible, but also setting tasks for their implementation.
In many foreign and domestic motivational concepts, the central mental process that explains behavior is decision making. The disadvantage of these theories of motivation is the consideration of only individual aspects of the motivational process, without attempts to combine them. This is due to the fact that their authors deny the fundamental possibility of creating a universal theory of motivation that would equally satisfactorily explain the behavior of animals and humans.
List of used literature:
1. General psychology: a textbook for high school students. uch. establishments./ S.D. Maksimenko, G.V. Veshtejunas, V.V. Klimenko, V.A. Solovienko – M.: “Refl-book”, K.: “Vakler”, 2000. - 528 p.
2. Diligensky G.G. Problems of the theory of human needs // Questions of philosophy. – 1984. – No. 4.- P. 19-25.
3. Ilyin E.P. Motivation and motives - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2000. - 512 p.
4. Zanyuk Sergey. Psychology of motivation. – K.: Elga-N, Nika-center – 2001. – 352 p.
5. Heckhausen H. Motivation and activity: T.1; Per. from German/Ed. B.M. Velichkovsky. – M.: Pedagogy, 1986.-408 p.
The basic concepts and psychological aspects of labor motivation, methods of stimulating employees and motivational resources for managing an organization are considered.* A system for diagnosing staff labor motivation is outlined, proposed by the author as a result of his research on studying this issue at enterprises of various forms of ownership and fields of activity. This information will allow future managers to choose from a variety of resources, methods and management schemes the most suitable system for forming a motivational mechanism, taking into account the specifics of their field of activity, and apply it to increase employee productivity.
For bachelors of economics, management and sociology, including 080400 “Personnel Management”, 080200 “Management”, masters, graduate students, teachers. It will also be useful to anyone interested in the socio-economic aspects of work efficiency.
The essence and functions of work motivation.
Studies of the evolution of theoretical ideas about the content and regulation of motivational processes in the world of work have shown that with the socio-economic development of society, the direction of the vector of motivational influences has also changed. From the initial focus strictly on increasing labor productivity, i.e. stimulating physical activity, motivation gradually began to be directed towards increasing the quality of work and stimulating creative potential, initiative and consolidation of peak work in the enterprise.
Management, or business management, is the process of planning, organizing, motivating and controlling necessary to formulate and achieve company goals through influencing other people1.
Motivation is one of the main functions of any manager, and it is with its help that the company’s personnel are influenced.
The function of motivation is to influence the company's workforce in the form of incentives for effective work, social influence, collective and individual incentive measures. These forms activate the work of management subjects and increase the efficiency of the entire enterprise and organization management system.
From the author.
Introduction.
CHAPTER 1. WORK MOTIVATION AS BASIC. COMPONENT OF PERSONNEL MANAGEMENT.
CHAPTER 2. THEORETICAL ASPECTS OF WORK MOTIVATION.
CHAPTER 3. PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF WORK MOTIVATION.
CHAPTER 4. ASPECTS OF ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR IN WORK MOTIVATION.
CHAPTER 5. ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF WORK MOTIVATION.
CHAPTER 6. FORMATION OF EFFECTIVE.
MOTIVATIONAL MECHANISM IN THE ORGANIZATION.
Conclusion.
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