And I didn’t believe it?

The organs of taste in birds are represented by taste buds located in some parts of the beak and tongue, close to the ducts of the glands that secrete a sticky or liquid secretion, since the sense of taste is possible only in a liquid medium. A pigeon has 30-60 of these taste buds, a parrot has about 400, and ducks have a lot of them. For comparison, we point out that in the human oral cavity there are about 10 thousand taste buds, in a rabbit - about 17 thousand. Nevertheless, birds clearly distinguish between sweet, salty and sour, and some, apparently, bitter. Pigeons develop conditioned reflexes to substances that create such sensations - solutions of sugar, acids, salts. Birds have a positive attitude towards sweets.

Smells are not as indifferent to birds as previously thought. For some of them, they play a very significant role when searching for food. It is believed that corvid birds, such as jays and nutcrackers, search for nuts and acorns under the snow, focusing mainly on smell. Obviously, the sense of smell is better developed than others in petrels and waders, and especially in the nocturnal New Zealand kiwi, which apparently obtain food guided mainly by olfactory sensations. Features of the microstructure of the olfactory receptors of birds have led some researchers to the conclusion that they have two types of odor perception: during inhalation, as in mammals, and the second during exhalation. The latter helps in the smell analysis of food that has already been collected in the beak and has formed a food portion in its rear part. Such a lump of food in the choanal area is collected in the beak of chickens, ducks, waders and other birds before being swallowed.

It has recently been suggested that the olfactory organ plays a role in the period preceding reproduction. Along with other changes in the body of birds, at this time there is a strong increase in the coccygeal gland, which has an odorous secretion specific to each species. In the pre-breeding time, members of one pair, along with other ritual positions, often take a position in which they touch each other’s coccygeal gland with their beaks. Perhaps the smell of her secretion serves as a signal that triggers a complex of physiological processes associated with reproduction.

The olfactory abilities of birds are questioned by many. The differences in the complexity of the organization of the olfactory organs between birds and mammals are too great for them to use this sense equally. Still, many ornithologists admit that tropical honeyguides find hives of wild bees partly by the peculiar smell of wax. During the breeding season, many tubenoses often regurgitate a dark, sharp-smelling liquid from their stomachs - “stomach oil”, which often stains nests and chicks. It is believed that in a dense colony individual differences the smell of this receptor helps them find their offspring. The South American Guajaro nightjar probably also detects the fragrant fruits of trees by smell.

The olfactory analyzer is developed in different birds to varying degrees. But the mechanism of its functioning is largely the same as that of other vertebrates. This is confirmed, in particular, by electrophysiological studies.

Pigeons with a stuffy nose get lost in space.

Homecoming pigeons are easily confused. To do this, they just need to plug their right nostril, German and Italian scientists have found.

People have known for many centuries about the unique ability of pigeons to find their way home. In an attempt to confuse the birds, scientists attached permanent magnets to them, forced them to fly wearing polarized glasses, placed inductor coils on their heads and passed current through them, and to study the functioning of their brains in flight, equipped them with a miniature encephalograph. Modern researchers believe that orientation to the Sun, sense of smell, and registration of the slightest changes in the vector of the Earth’s magnetic field help pigeons find their way home.

In 1970, the Italian scientist Floriano Papi suggested that the brains of these birds form an olfactory map of the surroundings of their home, in which certain smells are associated with the winds that carry them. Therefore, when pigeons are released away from home, they only need to sniff the air to choose the desired direction of movement.

With a blocked beak.

Now scientists have decided to find out how pigeons sniff out the way to a house with their beaks blocked. Martin Wikelski from the Max Planck Institute for Ornithology in Radolfzell (Germany) and Anna Gagliardo from the University of Pisa conducted experiments with 31 birds. The biologists divided the pigeons into three groups: one had small rubber plugs inserted into the right nostril, birds from the second group had them inserted into the left nostril, and the third group was left untouched as a control. Lightweight GPS receivers were attached to the birds' backs, allowing them to be tracked as they returned home. On a sunny day, all the pigeons were taken to the mountain village of Chigoli, 41 kilometers from their native dovecote, and one by one they were released into the wild. For each bird, upon arrival home, the scientists calculated flight parameters: total length, tortuosity and number of stops.

One pigeon from the control group and one with a blocked right nostril returned to the dovecote without GPS receivers, and one pigeon with a blocked left nostril did not return at all. The rest arrived safely.

The flight study showed that the birds from the group with a blocked right nostril flew to the target in the most “roundabout” ways.

It turned out that the pigeons, unable to breathe through the right nostril, stopped more often and spent more time exploring their surroundings during each stop. “We believe these birds were forced to stop to gather additional information about their location. This is due to the fact that they could not rely on their sense of smell,” Gagliardo explained. According to her, this behavior indicates an asymmetry in the perception and processing of olfactory signals. Experiments have shown that the perception of odors in the right nostril and their processing by the left hemisphere of the brain play the most important role in the ability of pigeons to navigate. However, how the bird brain uses olfactory signals is still a mystery, scientists admit.

Vision is one of the most important senses of a pigeon. The eyes are located on the sides of the head. Their sizes are relatively large. The shape of the eyeball is flattened-spherical. Iris: The side facing the lens is highly pigmented; the side facing the cornea is equipped with a different color pigment that determines the color of the iris (in domestic pigeons - black-blue, pearl, in postal pigeons - cherry-red and pale bluish). The iris plays the role of a movable diaphragm, normalizing the penetration of sunlight into the eye. This explains that the eye can quickly adapt to strong light, and the pigeon is able to sit for hours looking at the sun. However, since pigeons are diurnal birds, they see poorly at dusk.

There are often unfeathered areas of skin around the eyelids, which increases the field of vision. From the inside they are lined with an epithelial connective membrane. The nictitating membrane, formed by a fold of the connective membrane, is located in the inner corner of the eye. This “third eyelid” serves to cleanse the front of the eye. On the inner surface of the nictitating membrane there are conical projections of the epithelium, apparently enhancing its effect. The muscles of the eyes are poorly developed, as a result of which they are inactive.

Pigeons do not have an auricle; it is replaced by skin folds at the external opening of the auditory canal and movable ear coverts that have a unique structure. Pigeons have very sensitive hearing.

The sense of smell in pigeons is poorly developed.

To perceive taste, taste buds are located on the tongue and palate of birds. Birds are able to distinguish between sweet, sour, bitter, and salty.

The sense of touch is carried out by the free endings of sensory nerves and differently constructed tactile bodies. They are located on the beak, eyelids, and paws.

Thanks to their visual organs, budgies see very well. But in the dark this ability disappears. Speaking about the digestive organs, it is worth noting that a bird’s crop can become swollen, which affects the enlargement of its chest. In general, knowing the anatomy of budgerigars, you can learn a lot of interesting things about them. Today we will talk about the structure of these birds: how long they grow, do they have ears, can they distinguish colors, how much do they weigh, and much more.

The budgerigar is considered the smallest parrot from Australia, as they say minimum size and weight. Despite this, such parrots have all the necessary organs for a full-fledged existence.

• size (weight, length);
• torso (skin, skeleton, digestive system);
• head (vision, hearing, taste, smell, touch).

Size

Body length budgerigar- from seventeen to twenty centimeters. The wing length is about ten centimeters. The length of the tail is from eight to ten centimeters.

The body of a budgerigar is evenly covered with feathers to protect against moisture loss, and underneath there is abundant down for insulation. Despite the fact that feathers have a rigid structure, they are practically weightless.

The digestive system of these birds copes with the digestion of plant foods and consists of the beak, mouth, esophagus, crop, stomach, liver, pancreas, intestines and cloaca. Food that gets into the mouth is barely wetted, since parrots have practically no saliva. Then it passes through the esophagus and enters the goiter, where it softens a little.

Thanks to contractions of the walls, the crop pushes food further into the stomach. Sometimes food accumulates in the crop. When this happens, the crop swells, and the circumference of the bird’s chest also increases. In this way, parrots can store and prepare food to feed their chicks.

Head

The budgerigar's relatively large skull is connected to the spine by only one condyle (a ball-shaped bone that, together with the first bone of the spine, forms a movable joint). The bird's head is wide and flat on top, rounded at the back. The bird's neck is very mobile, it allows its head to be turned one hundred and eighty degrees.

The length of the upper part of the movable jaws is slightly longer than the lower. The upper part is not fused to the skull, but is connected to the frontal part by a tendon. The wide palatine bones, connected in front to the upper jaw, are well developed. The lower part is connected to the quadrate bone.

Pigeons, like other birds, have a body structure and biological characteristics adapted to flight. The forelimbs are modified into flight organs - wings. The feather cover is well developed. Pigeons do not have teeth or a bladder, i.e., those organs that could weigh down the bird when flying. The spleen, liver, and stomach are small in relation to body weight. The egg-forming organs function only at certain times, and during the rest period they are significantly reduced.

In terms of their mobility and ability to overcome space, pigeons occupy one of the first places among terrestrial vertebrates; their flight speed reaches 100 km/h. This causes intense muscle work and significant energy expenditure. Oxygen exchange in their body occurs quickly and economically. The two-stage breathing process arose as an evolutionary adaptation to intensify metabolism in the body. The work of the digestive organs is also connected with this - pigeons consume a large number of food, and its absorption proceeds quickly. These features are closely related to the presence of a constant body temperature in pigeons, close to 42 °C, the stability of which is ensured by the insulating cover of feathers.

The pigeon's body is supported in the air by the aircraft. In general, the mechanism of flight is that the movements of the flying organs (wings) create air currents that lift the bird's body and direct it forward. The tail plays the role of a rudder and directs movement in the desired direction. The force of resistance that air exerts on the surface of the wings depends on the length and width of the wing and the speed of its flapping. The drag force is proportional to the square of the wing contraction. The ends of the wings experience the greatest resistance during flight. Experiments to remove four or five terminal flight feathers lead to the fact that the pigeon loses the ability to actively fly. Pigeons, depending on their breed characteristics, have two types of flight: rowing and sailing.

Rowing flight. Main aircraft- wing, single-arm lever that rotates in the shoulder joint. The attachment of the flight feathers and the peculiarity of their mobility are such that when striking downward, the wing almost does not allow air to pass through. When the wing rises, due to the bending of the axial part of the skeleton, the surface of the wing's action on the air becomes smaller. Thanks to the rotation of the flight feathers, the wing becomes permeable to air. In order for a pigeon to stay in the air, its movements are necessary, that is, the wind created by flapping its wings. At the beginning of the flight, the movements of the wings are more frequent, then, as the flight speed and resistance increase, the number of wing beats decreases, reaching a certain frequency. The flight speed of birds is very high: for example, a homing pigeon accelerates to 18–19 m/s. When frightened, for example when attacked by a falcon, the dove folds its wings and literally falls down like a stone, developing a speed of 70–80 km/h.

The maximum height of a pigeon's flight is 1–3 thousand m; higher up, probably due to the thin air, it is difficult for pigeons to fly. A “butterfly” flight is peculiar, in which pigeons seem to hover in place, spreading their tail wide to slow down their forward movement.

Sailing or soaring Pigeons use flight after gaining altitude. Sometimes sailing flights alternate with rowing flights. The pigeon gains altitude where there is constant movement of air currents, and by the position of its wings creates a certain attack of oncoming air. Periodically, pigeons connect the ends of their wings with the wing open and make a smooth flight in a circle.

As a result of adaptation to flight, the skeleton of pigeons acquired a number of features: a significant part of the bones are hollow inside and contain air, but these bones are thin, hard and durable. Bone tissue contains many mineral salts, is abundantly supplied with blood vessels, and has a highly developed periosteum. Tubular bones are thin-walled, they contain branches of special sacs filled with air penetrating through the endings of the pulmonary bronchi.

When studying the exterior, it is necessary to know the location and shape of the individual bones that make up the skeleton. For example, on the skull of crested birds there is a bony outgrowth that serves as the basis for the crest.

The mass of the pigeon skeleton, according to V.P. Nazarov (1958), reaches approximately 9% of the total body mass.

A characteristic feature of the spine is the fusion of most of the vertebrae, starting with the thoracic ones, which prevents the pigeon’s body from bending during flight and allows it to maintain a horizontal position. The bones of the pelvis form one large curved plate from which the internal organs are suspended. The pubic bones are not fused, and the pelvis is open, which is associated with the ability of birds to lay relatively large eggs in a hard shell. These birds have 12–13 cervical vertebrae.

The last tail vertebrae are fused into the pygostyle - the bone to which the tail (tail) feathers are attached, and the previous tail vertebrae are movable, which ensures greater mobility of the tail. The tail plays an important role in the flight of a pigeon: it maintains balance, serves as a brake, that is, it acts as a rudder. The pygostyle is especially important for peacock pigeons; their tail consists of 28 feathers. A weak pygostyle is not able to hold such a tail, and it falls to one side, which is a serious drawback.

A large sternum stands out, creating support for the internal organs during flight, and the keel - the crest of the sternum - is the place of attachment of powerful muscles that move the wings. Massive pectoral muscles reach 25% of the total body weight in flying breeds.

The wing is a modified forelimb of vertebrates, which was reduced, that is, simplified, in the process of bird evolution. The remaining fingers are the second, third and fourth, which together with the humerus, ulna and radius bones form the skeleton of the wing, its base. The first finger, which existed in ancient birds and helped in climbing trees, turned into a wing - a very important aerodynamic organ, similar to the slat of an airplane; without it, normal take-off and landing of a bird is impossible. The wing joints allow it to fold when not in use. A folded wing does not prevent the bird from moving freely on the ground, in tree branches, etc. In addition, folded wings, like two shields, protect the bird’s body from extraneous influences.

Rice. 1. Skeleton of a pigeon:

1 – cervical vertebrae; 2 – first finger on the wing; 3 – metacarpus; 4 – second finger; 5 – third finger; 6 – ulna; 7 – radius; 8 – shoulder; 9 – shoulder blade; 10 – ilium; 11 – caudal vertebrae; 12 – coccygeal bone; 13 – ischium; 14 – pubic bone; 15 – thigh; 16 – shin; 17 – tarsus (metatarsus); 18 – first toe; 19 – fourth toe; 20 – sternum; 21 – carina of the sternum; 22 – ventral part of the rib; 23 – dorsal part of the rib; 24 – coracoid; 25 – collarbone; 26 – thoracic vertebrae

The hind limbs support the entire body when moving on the ground. The femur is powerful and short. The tibia bones are fused almost completely, the tibia is reduced. The fusion of the bones of the tarsus and metatarsus forms the so-called tarsus. Of the four fingers, three face forward and one is opposed. This structure of the hind limb gives the body greater stability and allows it to tenaciously grasp the support. Compared to other birds, the pigeon’s legs are perhaps somewhat less developed; the pigeon cannot jump like a sparrow or crow, cannot run fast, cannot pick up something with its paw or hold a piece of food.

In pigeons, the lungs are fused to the ribs, and contraction of the intercostal muscles during flight automatically stimulates the functioning of the respiratory apparatus. This circumstance must be especially taken into account, since keeping pigeons in a sedentary state, without flying, makes them weak and prone to disease. Strong and healthy pigeons are always on the move, weak and sick pigeons sit ruffled. The physical condition of pigeons affects fertility.

The muscle tissue of birds is characterized by high density and fine fiber. Its structure in pigeons depends on the breed. In postal and high-flying ones it is dense, in meat and decorative ones it is loose. Bird muscles are divided into four groups: muscles of the head, trunk, limbs and skin. They are attached to the bones by tendons.

The arrangement of muscles in pigeons is peculiar. There are no muscles at all on the dorsal side of the body. The bulk of them are located on the ventral side. The pectoral muscles, which move the wings, are especially strongly developed.

The pectoral muscles (torso) begin on the chest bone and collarbone and end on the humerus. Their contraction sets the wings in motion.

The shoulder girdle in birds, which is a mechanical support for the wings, is very developed and provides a strong connection to its constituent bones: the scapula, the corcoid bone and the clavicles. The latter are shaped like a Roman numeral V and play the role of a spring, protecting the body from being compressed by the wings when the pectoral muscles contract during flight and flapping the wings. They serve in the same way as the pectoral muscles for the movement of the wings.

The rib cage consists of ribs attached to the spine and breastbone (keel). It is very strong and strengthens the shoulder girdle connected to the wings. The better developed the breast bone (keel), the higher the value of the pigeon.

The pigeon's neck is mobile, as it consists of 14 vertebrae, which allows it to change direction during flight. The thoracic vertebrae are inactive, the bones of the lumbosacral region are fused together, which is also a consequence of adaptation to flight.

The skin protects the pigeon from external influences: mechanical, temperature, chemical, etc.

The skin of pigeons, unlike the skin of mammals, is thin, dry, mobile, with a highly developed subcutaneous layer. It is loosely connected to the muscles, which allows it to gather into folds. The skin is non-keratinized, scaly, and in some breeds it is heavily feathered. One of the features of pigeon skin is the absence of sweat and sebaceous glands. Thermoregulation in pigeons is carried out due to air sacs, breathing, changes in the density of plumage (feathers ruffle from the cold) and regulation of metabolic rate.

Greater mobility of the skin of birds is ensured by a loose subcutaneous layer; fatty deposits accumulate in it, which represent internal nutrition reserves consumed by the body during certain periods (reproduction, molting). Fatty layers soften impacts and promote thermal insulation.

Derivatives of the skin include feathers, beaks, and claws. The metatarsus and toes are covered with horny scales.

Plumage performs diverse and important functions. Serves mainly to retain heat, creates a streamlined surface of the body and protects the skin from damage.

A feather is a very special formation, found only in birds: light, flexible and dense, it makes it possible to fly. As a cover, the feather reliably covers the bird, and on the outside it lies tightly, and in the depths a loose heat-insulating layer is formed from the down or lower parts of the feather. The feather occupies 60% of the bird's body volume, but only 11% by weight.

The feather is laid in the embryonic period; after hatching, the chick is already covered with sparse down, representing the tip of the covert feather in its infancy. The formed feather consists of trunk, rod And fanned. The lower part of the fan is called the edge. It is shiny, horn-shaped, round, has a core in the form of separate funnels, entering one into the other. The lower part of the feather is placed in the feather bag and is connected to the feather papilla, which enters the feather. At this point, a side stem with downy and semi-downy webs emerges. The feather shaft is oval or faceted and filled with a hard spongy mass. First-order rays extend symmetrically from the rod, and second-order rays from them, having hooks and cilia. The hooks and cilia interlock and form an elastic, dense feather plate. The flight feathers of the first and second orders are long, elastic, and dense. They are attached to the area of ​​the hand and forearm, have the shape of an elongated oval plate and are somewhat curved along the contour of the body.

Outline feathers They have a hard, elastic trunk and the same fan. Contour feathers include coverts, flight feathers and tail feathers. The coverts are usually somewhat convex and closely overlap one another. Flight feathers are long, hard feathers attached to the carpal part of the wing and forearm. The number of primary, or first order, flight feathers is small - 10–12. The peculiarity of their structure is a highly developed, durable, asymmetrical fan. The flight feathers of the second order with a symmetrical web are attached to the ulna. The tail feathers form the bird's tail, arranged in a single row, attached to the pygostyle. There are usually 10–12 of them, i.e. two feathers per vertebra. In purebred pigeons their number reaches 16, and in decorative pigeons – more than 36–38.

In addition to contour feathers, birds have simpler down feathers, in which the barbs are not fastened, and feathers with almost no stem - fluff. Pigeons do not have down feathers or down; they are replaced by the lower part of the fan with downy, free beards.

Most birds have a coccygeal gland above the tail; birds, especially waterfowl, coat all their feathers with its secretions so that they do not get wet. In pigeons, the coccygeal gland is poorly developed. But, in addition to ordinary feathers, there are also special powder feathers. These feathers, the ends of the barbs of which constantly break off and form a fine powder - powder that covers the entire plumage of the bird. Powdery down - tiny horny plates that easily absorb moisture - is found on the sides and rump of pigeons. The presence of powdered fluff determines the softness of the shades in the color of all pigeons.

A feature of birds, and in particular pigeons, is the ability to restore plucked feathers. A feather plucked between moults can grow back, but a feather plucked while it has not yet developed will not grow back well. Nutrition plays a significant role in feather restoration, especially the presence of proteins, minerals and vitamins. Feather growth also depends on the state of the nervous and endocrine systems.

Pigeons have areas of skin where the feathers are unevenly spaced, exposing it. Feathers are located on the skin in special stripes - pterilia, alternating with bare areas - apteria. With this arrangement, the feather fits more tightly, facilitating muscle contraction and skin mobility during flight.

Plumage color (solid, combination of white and colored, pattern) is one of the hereditary characteristics of pigeons. Primary colors are blue (pigeon), black, red, yellow and white. Due to permanent variability, the number of combinations (patterns) can be indicated by a four-digit number. There are also so-called transitional colors: bronze, copper, silver, chamois, boiled liver, ash, fawn with belts on the wing shields (red, black, white). In addition to single-color ones, there are two- and three-color ones, speckled, scaly and many other colors and patterns in various combinations. Pigeons of Uzbek breeds are hatched red or ashen, black and white, and after molting they change color and pattern.

The nature of the colors of the plumage of pigeons has long been of interest to researchers: many colors have already received their full definition. However, significantly large quantity still needs to be explored.

The color of the plumage of pigeons is due to two types of pigments - melanins and lipochromes, which color the skin and feathers in the corresponding color. Gray and black melanins are produced in the body and enter the feather during its growth. Lipochromes are dyes of plant origin, contain carotene, and enter the pigeon’s body with food. The colors they create range from ash-clay (yellow) to the rich color of red clay. This pigment colors the beak, eyelid, metatarsus, and bare skin around the eyes. The yellow color of the iris of the eyes of some breeds of pigeons is also due to the presence of lipochromes.

The white plumage of pigeons is called pigmentless. The shiny, iridescent feathers on the neck are an optical effect of light reflection from the pigment base of the upper layer of the feather barbs. This is the result of the reflection and addition of light waves, and the pigment contained in the feather causes the appearance of certain shades of gloss: blue-green, metallic, soft purple in red breeds. This phenomenon is also observed in white pigeons.

Particular attention must be paid to the integrity of the wing feathers. They are often affected by feather eaters and become contaminated, especially in winged pigeons, as a result of which they lose supporting power and the ability to fly even short distances, not to mention flight altitude.

Molting is a natural process of changing feathers every year, but it is a little painful. Usually starts in July and lasts until October. Features of molting and its timing are a hereditary trait. In pigeons that are weakened or have recovered from illness, it is slow and painful.

The change of feathers occurs gradually and in a strictly defined order, so that the pigeon does not lose the ability to fly, as is observed in geese and ducks. The change of feather begins with the tenth flight feather, proceeds alternately to the outermost one. The secondary flight feathers begin to fall out when the six primary flight feathers are completely renewed. Between the feathers of the first and second orders, the so-called axillary feather grows at the border. The change of secondary flight feathers occurs from the outer ones in the direction of the shoulder joint. After half of the primary flight feathers fall out, the change of tail feathers begins, which also takes place in a certain order: starting from the middle, two feathers fall out, then the next ones, and so on (Fig. 2).

The tail, consisting of 12 or more feathers, molts simultaneously with the secondary flight feathers. Usually the tail is symmetrical in the number of feathers in it from the middle. Most pigeon breeds have 12 of them. The second feathers from the middle fall out first. Then the two middle feathers are replaced, and after that the rest one by one (in both directions). The last to be replaced are the second tail feathers on both sides. The small wing coverts begin to change when the sixth flight feather of the first order falls out and are completely renewed before the change of flight feathers.

The change of small plumage is more intense than that of the flight feathers. The molting of the head and neck is especially active, and is somewhat delayed on the sides, marking the end of the whole process. New feathers that have grown to replace those that have fallen out are easily distinguishable: they are lighter, brighter, and the feathers are wider. The plumage of a healthy bird is abundant, dense, clean and shiny, covered with “powder” that remains on the hands when touched.

In pigeons of the spring brood, the first molt, partial change of feathers begins at three months of age and proceeds normally; in late broods it can occur at next year. Such pigeons begin to fly much later than the early ones in March.

Rice. 2. Scheme of molting of primary and secondary flight feathers

During molting, a new feather is formed under the dead feather deep in the skin, which pushes out the old one, so that it eventually falls out. However, several days pass before the new feather pierces the skin and takes on its final dimensions.

Molting is a regularly recurring physiological process that greatly affects the course of metabolism. At this time, pigeons, as a rule, become lethargic, they have difficulty breathing, some have yellow tongues, their eyes lose their inherent shine, and sometimes the birds refuse food. During molting, pigeons require especially careful care and feeding. During this period, a little hemp or flaxseed should be added to the main feed; there should be plenty of mineral feed necessary for feather formation. In case of poor appetite, it is recommended to give domestic pigeons 1-2 grains of black pepper, and wild species - seeds of weeds and cultivated herbs.

The growing feather is intensively supplied with blood, so when it is pulled out and broken off, bleeding may occur.

A pigeon with an open molt must be handled carefully so as not to hurt it or damage the tubes of the emerging new feather.

Since pigeons need to make long flights, their respiratory organs are complex. The respiratory apparatus of pigeons includes: the nasal cavity, the upper larynx, the trachea, the lower larynx, bronchi, lungs, and a system of branched air sacs.

Respiration is the process of exchanging gases between the body and the environment, releasing respiratory moisture and with it heat, oxidizing nutrients and releasing energy. The respiratory organs of pigeons ensure the exchange of gases between the body and the environment, and participate in the regulation of water, heat exchange and acid-base balance.

Rapid breathing (shortness of breath) may be due to increased carbon dioxide in environment and when the body overheats. At the same time, pigeons breathe heavily, with their beaks open, and their wings are set aside. During the flight, pigeons breathe rarely, taking the maximum amount of air into their air sacs.

The weak extensibility and small volume of the lungs is compensated by a formation characteristic of the respiratory system of birds - air sacs (Fig. 3). Their walls are very thin, consisting of an outer serous membrane and an inner one consisting of flat epithelial cells. The air sacs are divided into inspiratory sacs, which are filled with air when you inhale, and exhalatory sacs, which are filled with air when you exhale. The first include abdominal - asymmetrical (the left is often smaller than the right), reaching the cloaca, and metathoracic, sometimes reaching the pelvic area. The second group is represented by paired cervical air sacs, unpaired subclavian, paired prothoracic. Air sacs penetrate into the spaces between the internal organs, into the pneumatic cavities of the skeleton and communicate with each other.

Rice. 3. Location of air sacs in the body of a pigeon:

1 – cervical; 2 – interclavicular with accessory cavity; 3, 4 – anterior and posterior thoracic; 5, 6 – left and right abdominal; 7 – trachea; 8 – lung

Depending on the structure of the lungs, chest and the presence of a system of air sacs, birds have some features in the breathing process. When you inhale, the abdominal cavity increases, and when you exhale, it decreases: the air in the air sacs is forced out through the lungs and thus passes through them twice. The volume of the lungs remains almost unchanged during breathing. Air sacs are a reserve reservoir that temporarily receives atmospheric air passing through the lungs.

Air sacs play an important role in cooling the body and especially internal organs. According to research, the number of inhalations and exhalations per minute in pigeons is 15–32.

The physiological purpose of blood and lymph is to deliver oxygen and nutrients to tissue cells, remove metabolic products and carry them to the excretory organs. Blood is the carrier chemical substances, stimulating or inhibiting the activity of various organs, as well as substances that act specifically on pathogenic microbes. If these properties are present, it performs protective functions in the body. Its amount in relation to the body weight of the pigeon is 9.2%.

A pigeon's blood clots 10 times faster than a horse's. If there is no source of vitamin in the pigeons’ diet TO(greens, carrots) coagulability is reduced, and minor injuries cause bleeding. The number of heartbeats per minute in a pigeon ranges from 136,360 and depends on body weight: in large birds it is less than in small birds. In stressful situations (fear), the number of heartbeats in pigeons increases significantly.

Pigeons have a number of features in the structure and functioning of the digestive organs (Fig. 4).

The beak of pigeons is hard, pointed, short, and well adapted for pecking grains. The taste organs are located on the tongue, in the epithelium of the lateral parts of the oral cavity.

The esophagus is a direct continuation of the pharynx. In the lower part it has a spherical extension - the goiter, which bifurcates into chambers: right and left. In the crop there are glands that secrete a secret that envelops the food reserves temporarily contained in it. Its volume, due to the high extensibility of the walls, can vary. As the stomach is emptied, feed masses from the crop enter it through the esophagus.

In the crop, food accumulates and prepares it for digestion, and after the chicks hatch, the integumentary epithelium is desquamated, which is regurgitated through the esophagus into the mouth. This secretion is often called goiter milk by pigeon breeders; it is secreted during the first 8 days. The composition of goiter milk includes 64% water, 19% protein, 12.5% ​​fat, 1.5% ash and 3% other substances. On the 8th day, the chicks' eyes open; after hatching they are blind. From the 8th day, adult pigeons continue to feed the chicks with food gruel regurgitated from the crop. At the age of one month, the pigeons fledge and move on to independent existence.

The stomach of pigeons has two sections - glandular and muscular, which differ in anatomical structure, but are closely related functionally. The glandular stomach is a short, thick-walled tube located between the final segment of the esophagus and the muscular stomach and connected to them. In granivorous birds - pigeons - it is small. The muscular stomach is a disc-shaped organ, the main mass of its walls is made up of powerful muscles, developed to varying degrees and located asymmetrically. This uneven arrangement of the stomach muscles creates conditions for squeezing and grinding the food in it. In its bag-like cavity, where the entrance and exit are located in the upper part, food masses are temporarily retained until they are crushed, and gravel or coarse sand swallowed along with food remains for a long time. They help grind food and grind it, because pigeons do not have teeth.

Rice. 4. Internal organs pigeon:

1 – tongue; 2 – esophagus; 3 – trachea; 4 – goiter; 5 – lungs; 6 – glandular stomach; 7 – liver; 8 – muscular stomach; 9 – spleen; 10 – liver duct; 11 – pancreas; 12 – pancreatic ducts; 13 – duodenum; 14 – small intestine; 15– kidneys; 16– ureter; 17 – rectum; 18 – cloaca

In the pyloric opening (exit) the duodenum originates, which passes into the small intestine. Its length reaches 20–22 cm. In the loop of the duodenum there is a pancreas, which secretes digestive juice here. The digestion process occurs in the intestines under the influence of enzymes. Nutrients (mineral and organic) substances are absorbed through the membranes of intestinal cells into the blood and lymph.

The liver duct opens into the duodenum. All poultry have a gall bladder near the first lobe of the liver, but pigeons do not have one. The liver is an organ that neutralizes toxic substances formed during digestion. In pigeons, it secretes bile directly into the intestines.

The reproductive organs of pigeons are complex; in the female they are divided into the ovary, which is attached to the spinal column, and the oviduct, which consists of several sections: the funnel, the oviduct itself (the albumen part), the isthmus, the uterus, the vagina and the cloaca. The oviduct is suspended on the mesentery and is actively supplied with blood.

In one clutch, the dove lays 2 eggs measuring 4x3 cm and weighing up to 20.0 g. During the period of preparation for oviposition, changes occur in all organs and tissues in the body. The amount of proteins, fats, carbohydrates, vitamins and minerals in the blood increases sharply.

The dove has one developed ovary and oviduct, the pigeon has two testes, the left one is slightly larger. The testes contain convoluted tubules. Fertilization of eggs after mating occurs in the funnel of the oviduct. After fertilization, the yolk with the blastodisc moves along the protein part of the oviduct, where the protein secretion is released, then the shell membranes and shell are formed. Before laying, the dove enters the nest and lays an egg with the sharp end facing out. Pigeons are characterized by a mating flight after mating.

Depending on the breed and individual characteristics doves, the egg weight ranges from 17 to 27 g. In Nikolaev, Odessa, Kremenchug, Astrakhan, Kursk, the egg weight is 17–20 g, length – 36.4 mm, volume – 27 mm 3, for exhibition German postal ones, weight – 23–27 g , length – 43 mm, volume – 31.5 mm 3.

Its shape is affected by the pressure of the oviduct muscles. Eggshells are white and yellow, sometimes with a brown tint. This depends on the amount of coloring pigment in the shell.

The yolk of pigeon eggs contains,%: water – 55.7; dry matter - 44.3, including organic - 44.3 (protein - 12.4, fat - 29.7, carbohydrates - 1.2) and inorganic (ash) - 1. Protein by chemical composition significantly different from the yolk, it contains much more water - 89.74%, dry matter - 10.26%. The shell of a pigeon egg consists mainly of inorganic substances - calcium carbonate and phosphate salts (95%), a small amount of organic substances (3.5%) and water (1.5%). The shell shell consists almost entirely of organic substances.

Pigeons develop according to the chick type, so there is less yolk in their eggs, and it is spent more quickly on the development of the chick than in a brood bird. Thus, in chickens and ducks, when hatching, chicks contain residual yolk, so in the first days of life they do not feed, but learn to look for food on their own. Pigeon chicks, immediately after hatching from the egg, require regular feeding and heating by their parents.

In pigeons, both birds incubate the eggs. The male usually warms the clutch from 10 a.m. to 4 p.m., the female spends the rest of the time on the nest, and there is a strict daily fixation of the time for heating eggs and chicks. The brooding temperature of a domestic pigeon is 36.1-40.7 °C, and the difference in heating of the lower and upper surfaces of the egg is up to 5 °C.

The duration of incubation for the sisar lasts 17.5-18 days, for the domestic pigeon it lasts 17 days. Towards the end of the incubation period, cracks appear on the egg laid first, and the chick hatches. The second egg hatches 10–12 hours after the first. Sometimes they hatch at shorter intervals or even simultaneously. From the moment the pecks appear until the chick is completely freed from the shell, 18–24 hours pass. The chick is released from the second egg approximately 5–6 hours faster. The bird takes the shell away from the nest.

The chicks emerge blind, covered with sparse filamentous down. Due to the lack of a constant body temperature in the first days of life, they need heating or protection from the scorching rays of the sun.

The chick that hatches first receives food from its parents after 4–6 hours, the youngest - almost a day later. They grow unevenly. Thus, the live weight of sizar chicks from the first day of life to the second increases by 8-10 times, and from 11 to 22 days - only by 2 times, then it stabilizes or even falls. The decrease in live weight before the chicks leave the nest is an adaptation that increases the specific force before the young begin to fly. At the age of 60-70 days, the chicks reach the mass of adult birds.

Their jaw apparatus grows very quickly. In 1012 days, the length of the rock pigeon chick's beak reaches the same length as that of adult birds, and the width even exceeds the width of their beak. The beak is finally formed by 35–38 days.

Breeding pigeons is significantly different from breeding other types of poultry. This is due, first of all, to their biological characteristics - the structure and functioning of the digestive organs. The esophagus forms a protrusion - a goiter. Feed is retained and gradually accumulates in it, then it is moistened and softened.

The mucous membrane of the crop of adult pigeons produces “bird milk” - mucus, which is excreted and serves as food for the chicks. Parents feed their offspring themselves - beak to beak, which makes raising pigeons very difficult.

Pigeon crop milk is a nutritious feed substance of yellow-white color, with the consistency of liquid sour cream. On chemical and physical properties it is very different from cow's milk. The composition of pigeon milk includes 64–82% water, 9–10% protein, 7–13% fat and fat-like substances and 1.6% minerals. Vitamins are also found in it A, D, E And IN. It tastes like rancid butter.

The first feeding of hatched chicks is always done by the female.

Completely helpless and blind chicks insert their beaks into the throats of their parents for a portion of goiter milk, which they regurgitate to them. They feed this way until they are 6-8 days old. On the 7-8th day, various seeds and gastroliths already fall into the crops of the chicks, the number of which increases every day, and the crop milk from the parents soon ceases to be secreted. From 10-12 days of age, pigeons begin to feed their young with a highly swollen grain mixture. From this moment on, they feed like adult birds.

Baby pigeons, compared to brood chicks, stay in the nest for a very long time (about a month). Weather conditions affect the number of broods and the success of feeding chicks, but do not affect incubation.

At the age of 4–8 days they can crawl and, left on the edge of the nest, climb under their parents. From 6 days of age, down begins to be replaced by feathers. From 78 days, during the day, in warm weather, they can be left alone; eyes begin to open. From the 7th day they persistently demand food and squeak loudly. When danger appears, they hide, pressing tightly to the nest litter.

From the 9-10th day, the chicks try to clean their plumage and often, standing up in the nest, make the first flaps of their wings. When trying to take them in hand, they rise to their feet and, ruffling the down and the stumps of contour feathers beginning to open, take a threatening pose, click their beak, and make sharp pecks towards the enemy. From the 9th day, the chicks become sighted, can remain without their parents, maintain a constant body temperature, but usually sit next to each other, huddled together.

At 14–20 days they walk well, often clean their feathers with their beaks, and play with nesting material. At the age of 20 days, when frightened, they can fall out of the nest.

From the 21st to the 27th day, the chicks during the day, good weather, leave the nest, constantly keeping together, and sit down for the night in it, huddling closely together.

At the age of 30 days, the chicks are fully feathered. At 28–34 days they leave the nest, but stay in the area of ​​the nesting site, begging their parents for food. At 32–34 days, they confidently fly with their parents, visiting the nearest feeding and watering places.

At 7 weeks, the chicks begin their first moult - the chicks' plumage changes to permanent. At 2–2.5 months they stop squeaking and start cooing.

The first manifestation of sexual instincts is noticeable in them at 5 months.

At 6–7 months, the first molt ends, and the wax is formed in color and shape.

Coarsening of the cere and periorbital rings occurs in pigeons by the age of 4 years.

In rock and domestic pigeons, chicks become sexually mature at the end of the first year of life. Domestic pigeons live from 15 to 20 years.

The age of pigeons plays an important role in their breeding. Usually pigeons live up to 15 years, in rare cases up to 20 years or more. The year the pigeon was hatched can be identified by the ring on its leg. If it is absent, then the correctness of age determination fully depends on the knowledge of the pigeon breeder, his observation and experience (Table 1).

External age-related changes depend on the breed of pigeons. Some pigeons ornamental breeds They reach their best form only by the third year of life and are in their prime until the age of 5-7, then they decline, and at the age of 910 they are unsuitable for reproduction. In racing pigeons of most breeds, the best performance occurs from the second year of life until the 5th-6th. Racing pigeons in most cases have top scores from the 3rd to the 6th year of life. During this period, they produce the most viable offspring with good flight qualities. With the exception of rare specimens, after 10 years, pigeons begin a period of aging, they become lethargic, inactive and less efficient.

Table 1. Age-related changes in pigeons

Vision is one of the most important senses of a pigeon. The eyes are located on the sides of the head. Their sizes are relatively large. The shape of the eyeball is flattened-spherical. Iris: The side facing the lens is highly pigmented; the side facing the cornea is equipped with a different color pigment that determines the color of the iris (in domestic pigeons - black-blue, pearl, in postal pigeons - cherry-red and pale bluish). The iris plays the role of a movable diaphragm, normalizing the penetration of sunlight into the eye. This explains that the eye can quickly adapt to strong light, and the pigeon is able to sit for hours looking at the sun. However, since pigeons are diurnal birds, they see poorly at dusk.

There are often unfeathered areas of skin around the eyelids, which increases the field of vision. From the inside they are lined with an epithelial connective membrane. The nictitating membrane, formed by a fold of the connective membrane, is located in the inner corner of the eye. This “third eyelid” serves to cleanse the front of the eye. On the inner surface of the nictitating membrane there are conical projections of the epithelium, apparently enhancing its effect. The muscles of the eyes are poorly developed, as a result of which they are inactive.

Pigeons do not have an auricle; it is replaced by skin folds at the external opening of the auditory canal and movable ear coverts that have a unique structure. Pigeons have very sensitive hearing.

The sense of smell in pigeons is poorly developed.

To perceive taste, taste buds are located on the tongue and palate of birds. Birds are able to distinguish between sweet, sour, bitter, and salty.

The sense of touch is carried out by the free endings of sensory nerves and differently constructed tactile bodies. They are located on the beak, eyelids, and paws.

Pigeons live in flocks and are diurnal. Most of them belong to sedentary or nomadic birds, and only a few species in temperate latitudes make regular flights. Their life in packs is not based on mutual friendship, but on the benefits that they receive when they jointly search for food, water or protection from enemies. When pigeons live in flocks, the affection of birds of one pair is especially striking: the male and female do not steal food from each other, willingly sit together a lot and constantly express their tenderness. This never happens between other people's pigeons; They always sit at a distance from each other that does not allow them to get hit with their beak.

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