Commerce or commercial activity is carried out at certain phases of the movement of a product (good) from production to consumption. The content of these phases is the process of exchange or trade. IN general view this movement can be represented by the following diagram:

The circulation phases are indicated in brackets, i.e. purchase and sale of goods. In the first case, this is the purchase of means of production and work force, and in the second - the sale of goods ready for consumption. This whole process can be represented as a process of circulation, which is interrupted for some time by the process of production. It is organized solely for the purpose of making a profit and is called entrepreneurial activity or entrepreneurship.

Entrepreneurship is the expedient activity of organizing and operating an enterprise with the aim of generating income (profit).

By organizing an enterprise, we mean the realized ability of an entrepreneur to connect and make the factors of production of goods and services function in a special way in order to make a profit.

The totality of acts of purchase and sale of various types of entrepreneurs forms a market. The entire market, depending on the objects purchase and sale, is divided into the following types:

Labor market;

Financial market:

a) securities market;

b) loan capital market;

c) foreign exchange market;

d) money market;

Factors of production market:

a) land market;

b) natural resources market;

c) capital market or market for means of production;

Consumer market;

Technology market;

Services market:

a) trade services;

b) health care and recreational services;

c) educational services;

d) utilities;

e) transport services, etc. (tourist, financial,

management, real estate...).

Each market forms its own type of commercial activity with its own specific characteristics.

For example, commercial activities in the education sector are different from commercial activities in the technology market and the natural resources market. Moreover, the techniques and methods used in commerce within the same market are fundamentally different from each other. It is clear that it is necessary to sell educational services in other ways than utility services. At the same time, the purpose of commercial activity and principles remain identical.

The role of commerce in entrepreneurial activity cannot be overestimated, because real profit (in the form of monetary units or a useful effect) appears only in the exchange phase, upon completion of the process of buying and selling goods, i.e. as a result of commercial activities.

Elements of commercial activity can be carried out in all types of entrepreneurship in the form of purchase and sale of goods, raw materials, materials, semi-finished products, services, etc. However, these elements are not decisive for entrepreneurship. They are only an integral part of it, along with production, specific (technological) processes.

IN in this example commerce manifests itself only as component entrepreneurship when an entrepreneur sells his product, and it makes no difference whether it is a product or a service. Based on this, commercial activity is integral integral part entrepreneurship.

Another form of manifestation of commerce is as a special type of entrepreneurship. Here the entrepreneur consciously chooses the type of activity, which consists of the purchase and sale of goods or services. Such an entrepreneur can rightfully be called a businessman, since all his activities consist of rational organization transactions of exchange of goods or services for money, goods or services.

The main goal of commerce, like entrepreneurship, is to make a profit, only not through the production of goods or services, but through the exchange (purchase and sale) of goods, services, etc., since commerce takes place not only in the sphere of commodity circulation. In market conditions, in addition to goods and services, money, new technologies, products of intellectual labor, and other products of real value are sold.

In a market economy, commercial activity is carried out through the implementation of its inherent functions.

In our opinion, the study of commercial activity should begin with the identification of main and subordinate functions. This provision is especially important when solving such practical issues, such as the development of a system of evaluation indicators of commercial activities, the development of criteria and indicators of the effectiveness of commercial activities, the development of a system for stimulating the work of employees of commercial enterprises.

The main objective function of commercial activity is making a profit. Methods and techniques for obtaining this result are reproduced in the implementation of other functions.

Thus, there is a main target function of commercial activity - making a profit, and all the others through which it manifests itself are subordinate. These are specific commercial functions. Their implementation leads to commercial activities.

Based on the fact that the essence of an object or phenomenon is determined by its main target function, and the main target function of commercial activity is making a profit, its essence consists of making a profit through the purchase and sale of goods, services, products of intellectual labor, etc.

In modern economic literature, authors identify a number of functions implemented by commerce. Thus, the following functions are distinguished: exchange (change of forms of value, change of forms of ownership), information, related to the organization of the purchase and sale process, the organization of sales activities, the organization of customer service, etc. Moreover, some functions are called basic, others - non-basic.

In order for the purchase and sale of a product or service to be completed, it is necessary to carry out certain interrelated actions (implement the following functions):

Research and analyze the market for goods or services;

Determine needs for goods or services;

Find a seller or buyer of goods or services;

Negotiate with him on the upcoming deal;

Conclude a transaction-contract with him, in which all the conditions are stipulated: the product (service), its quantity, quality, price, delivery time, etc.;

Fulfill the contract: organize the wholesale purchase of goods, wholesale or retail sale of goods, make payments for the delivered goods;

Organize the sale of services.

These operations constitute the content of commercial activities (CA).

All subordinate functions of the business enterprise consist of a certain hierarchy relative to the main function - making a profit. Functions that directly “serve” the main function (on the implementation of which profit directly depends) are subordinate functions of the 1st order.

Those functions of commercial activity that are aimed at creating the necessary conditions for the implementation of subordinate functions of the first order are classified as subordinate functions of the 2nd order. These include:

Financial support- involves capitalization of profits, accumulation of income from sales, mobilization of finance from external sources (investors and creditors), management of the use of capital and income, control and management of settlements with suppliers and customers. Financial support is a primary condition for commercial activity, since the enterprise constantly needs funds to carry out its functions. For effective management assortment, financial sources of cash flow are required, among which are our own and borrowed capital. On the other hand, the assortment dictates the size and structure financial resources for the purchase and maintenance of the necessary product groups.

Logistics support - is associated with the acquisition of machinery, equipment, raw materials, components, inventory, that is, everything that is necessary for economic activity. Logistics support is aimed at creating optimal material conditions for carrying out commercial activities, including assortment management. They presuppose the presence of premises, trade and technological equipment, inventory and other items necessary for the implementation of the trade and technological process with product groups that make up the trade assortment. Need in material resources depends on the range of goods sold in the store.

Purchasing labor - by hiring employees is intended to provide a personal factor carrying out commercial activities. For an enterprise to be competitive and operate successfully in the market, it requires qualified personnel with knowledge and experience in assortment management. On the other hand, the assortment specialization of the store determines the parameters and requirements for hired workers.

Information support - through systematic collection, processing and analysis necessary information external and internal nature provides commercial specialists with relevant information to make the right decisions in the purchase and sale processes. The basis for successful implementation of assortment management is its information support. It involves studying the market conditions of buyers and suppliers, the enterprise’s own capabilities, and determining the effectiveness of assortment management. This allows you to make the right decisions regarding the purchase of necessary goods. Main tasks information support is to obtain reliable information from buyers about demand and transfer it in full to suppliers.

Thus, commercial activity is a set of processes and operations aimed at purchasing and selling goods, services, money, new technologies, products of intellectual labor, etc. for the purpose of making a profit.

We must not forget, however, that all these actions are carried out only in order to make a profit, and the functions in which the content of commercial activity is manifested serve to implement the main target function, that is, they are of a subordinate nature.

Some economists attribute these processes and operations to the essence of commercial activity, and consider its content to be “operations related to the implementation of commercial activity,...operations performed at the appropriate stage of commercial activity.” Here, in our opinion, there is a substitution of the essence of commercial activity with content, and the content - technological processes in trade, which are the object of study in the discipline “Organization and technology of trade”.

Based on the nature of the functions performed, the processes performed in trade can be divided into two main types:

Commercial (or purely trading);

Production (or technological).

Commercial processes are associated with a change in forms of value, i.e. with the purchase and sale of goods. These also include organizational and economic processes that are not directly related to acts of purchase and sale, but ensure the continuity of their implementation and are not of a production (technological) nature (studying consumer demand, concluding sales contracts; advertising, etc.).

Commercial processes are the object of commercial activity in trade.

Technological processes are associated with the movement of goods as a use value and are a continuation of the production process in the sphere of circulation (transportation, storage, packaging, packing, subsorting, etc.).

Technological processes are the object of study in the special discipline “Organization and Technology of Trade”.

Let's consider the points of view of some experts regarding the basic principles of commercial activity (Table 1).

Table 1

Questions

for the State exam in specialty 1-25 01 10 “Commercial activity”

discipline: “Commercial activity”

1. Market of goods and services and factors influencing its condition

2. Concept, role and objectives of commercial activity in the market of goods and services

3. The main elements of the content of commercial activities of a trading enterprise and their relationship

4 Characteristics of subjects of commercial relationships and requirements for commercial employees

5. Information support for commercial activities

6. Trade secrets and their protection

7. The concept of consumer demand and the tasks of its study

8. Types of consumer demand of the population

9.Methods for studying population demand

10. Features of studying demand in wholesale trade

11. Market conditions: concept, objectives and goals of its study

12. Concept, essence of the assortment policy of a trading enterprise

13. Indicators characterizing the state of the store’s product range

14. Formation of an assortment of goods in wholesale trade enterprises

15.Principles and stages of forming a range of goods in enterprises retail

16.Formation of the assortment of goods in stores according to consumer complexes

17. Inventories and their role in ensuring the continuity of the trading process

18. Essence and classification of economic relations for the supply of goods

19.Contractual work and its content

20.Legal regulation economic relations for the supply of consumer goods

21. Economic relations for the supply of goods for government needs in the Republic of Belarus

22. Sources of wholesale purchases and suppliers of goods on the market

23.Wholesale fairs: concept, purpose and classification

24.Methods and operations of wholesale sales of goods from warehouses of wholesale enterprises

25. Concept, role and indicators of economic efficiency of advertising in commercial activities

27. The essence and goals of commercial activities in retail trade to stimulate sales of goods

28. System of indicators characterizing the efficiency of commercial activities

29. Concept, essence, subject and subject of leasing

30.The essence of franchising and its role in the development of small businesses.

Private educational institution

Institute of Entrepreneurship

Department of Commercial Activities

Answers

to questions about discipline

"Commercial activity"

for specialty students

1-25 01 10 “Commercial activities”

Developed by Associate Professor

Department of Commercial Activities

Kholopovsky V.P.

Minsk 2009

"COMMERCIAL ACTIVITY"

(Questions and answers on discipline for the State Examination Committee)

Question 1. Market of goods and services and factors influencing its condition .

Answer. The category “market” is a capacious and diverse concept, which gives rise to many points of view on its nature and origin. The question of defining a market has a long history. His can be defined as the socio-economic sphere of relations in the commodity economy system arising between sellers and buyers in the process of commodity exchange.

Therefore, we can talk about the market in two aspects:

as a certain sphere, space, territory where the intentions of sellers and buyers materialize, and as a specific relationship between subjects and objects of the market that are present in the named sphere.

This is the dual nature of the market as a category and its specificity as an object of management.

As for the market for consumer goods, it can be defined as the scope and essence of relations between subjects and objects of the market that arise in the process of selling part of the total social product aimed at personal consumption.

As an object of management, the goods market is characterized by the following main elements:

demand, supply of goods, degree of balance between supply and demand, capacity, market conditions, macro- and microstructure, market infrastructure, purchasing funds of the population and price.

The following factors influence the consumer market :

-economic(the state of the country’s economy, domestic production of consumer goods, lending, solvency of organizations and enterprises, the presence of an economic crisis, etc.), social(solvency of the population, level of wages, pensions, scholarships, benefits, other social benefits, share of workers, employees, intelligentsia), demographic(number of population, including: women, men, children, pensioners) , political and legal(the degree of influence of state power on the country’s economy, the state and renewal of the legal framework), scientific and technical(level of development of scientific and technological progress, state of science, innovation of production, etc.) , cultural(level of general culture, level of culture of production, trade, national traditions, customs) , external(the state of foreign economic and international relations and etc

Question 2. Concept and role of commercial activity

Answer. Commerce- a word of Latin origin (commercium - trade). Commerce is a type of commercial entrepreneurship or business, but a noble business, that business that is the main part of any truly civilized market economy

The explanatory dictionary of the living Great Russian language by V. I. Dahl defines commerce as “bargaining, trade, trade turnover, merchant trades”

The concept of design control as an object of research was formulated by the Harvard School of Design Management in 1958.

The classic definition is that a business activity exists to profitably satisfy consumer demands.

commercial activity- a narrower concept than entrepreneurship.

Entrepreneurship- this is the organization of economic, production and other activities that generate income for the entrepreneur. Entrepreneurship can mean organizing an industrial enterprise, a rural farm, a trading enterprise, etc. Of all these types of entrepreneurial activities, only trading is a purely commercial activity.

Thus, commerce should be considered as one of directions(types) of entrepreneurial activity. At the same time, in entrepreneurial activity operations can be carried out for the purchase and sale of goods, raw materials, prepared products, semi-finished products, etc., i.e. areas or elements of commercial activity may be inherent in all types of entrepreneurship, but are not decisive or main for them.

Therefore, commercial work in trade represents a broad area of ​​operational and organizational activities trade organizations and enterprises aimed at carrying out processes of purchase and sale of goods on consumer market to meet the demand of the population and make a profit.

Commercial activities are characterized as:

market activity in the field of commodity-money relations;

activities carried out on the principles of marketing and aimed at obtaining maximum profits;

management activities, including targeted management decisions on objects for collecting and processing the necessary information and the implementation of appropriate decisions.

The purpose of the CD is the sale of the largest number of goods with the highest income and at the same time ensuring a high reputation of the company, achieving sustainable maximum sales in the future.

Peculiarities KD:

commercial work arises only when trade organizations bear full economic responsibility for the purchase and sale of goods;

commercial work is not limited to the trading industry, since industrial enterprises act as wholesale sellers and buyers of goods and services;

commercial work has its own content and therefore requires a special service and appropriate professionals.

KD principles: inextricable connection with the principles of marketing; prioritization;

responsibility for fulfilling accepted obligations under trade transactions;

focus on achieving profit.

CD functions:

marketing research; management of assortment and quality of goods;

sales management, promotion of goods and services.

Question 3. The main elements of the commercial activity of a trading enterprise and their relationship

Answer. Commercial activity consists of the following elements:

studying consumer demand and determining the need for goods;

formation of a competitive assortment;

selection of partners for establishing economic relations and channels for promoting goods;

establishing economic relations between partners* and purchasing goods

control over the fulfillment of contractual obligations for the supply of goods;

inventory management;

commercial activities for the wholesale sale of goods;

services or maintenance;

commercial activities involving the organization of retail sales of goods;

studying and forecasting market trends;

collecting and processing information about possible competitors;

formation of pricing strategy policy;

streamlining the process of selling goods.

All design elements are interconnected and create unified system, despite their different directions. In this case, elements of the internal environment are more important.

Each design element performs certain functions, and together they represent a system or subsystem in the overall structure.

Question 4. Characteristics of subjects of commercial legal relations .

The subjects of commercial legal relations are the parties entering into contractual relations for the purchase and sale of goods or the provision of services.

They can be national and foreign commercial enterprises, organizations, their associations (unions, associations), non-profit organizations those engaged in entrepreneurial activities, as well as individual entrepreneurs.

Subjects of commercial legal relations, depending on their legal status are divided into legal persons and persons engaged in commercial activities without forming a legal entity.

Legal entities include commercial organizations whose main purpose is to make a profit, and non-profit organizations that do not aim to make profit and do not distribute it among the founders.

Persons engaged in commercial activities without forming a legal entity organize it in the form of a simple partnership and commercial concession (franchising).

In accordance with the international classification, subjects of commercial legal relations are divided into four groups:

companies ;entrepreneurs' unions; government agencies;

public organizations .

Firms. The term “company” is used in world practice for symbol business partner pursuing commercial purposes- making a profit.

.Joint-Stock Company is organizational form associations of enterprises, organizations and individuals (shareholders). Its funds are generated through the issue and placement of shares.

Based on the nature of their ownership, firms are divided into public and private .

According to the ownership of capital, firms can be national, foreign, mixed.

According to the goals of the association, the degree of independence of the company is divided into cartels, trusts, concerns, holding companies, financial groups.

As subjects commercial operations in the market of the Republic of Belarus, industrial enterprises and trade organizations operate various forms property and departmental affiliation.

State industrial enterprises and trade organizations .

These include trade organizations and industrial enterprises of ministries, departments, committees: the Ministry of Trade, local councils, ORSs, trade departments, the Ministry Agriculture and food, the Ministry of Transport and Communications, the Ministry of Health, the Ministry of Communications, etc.

In the consumer market of the Republic of Belarus as state entities commercial operations are a number of concerns subordinate to the government :

“Belneftekhim”, “Bellegprom”, “Belmestprom”, “Belgospischeprom”, “Belbiopharm”, “Belmorrybprom”, “Bellesbumprom” and others.

They carry out wholesale and retail trade.

Non-state trade organizations . Organizations with collective responsibility:

Trade organizations of consumer cooperation; collective farms; cooperatives; rental organizations, small businesses, limited liability companies, etc.

Organizations with mixed ownership, including joint ventures.

Private organizations.

Entrepreneurs' unions may be the subjects of commercial transactions . Unlike firms (enterprises), the purpose of their activities is not to make a profit, but to represent and protect the interests of their constituent groups of entrepreneurs in government bodies, providing assistance and support in expanding their activities.

Situations are possible when relationships involving the purchase and sale of goods and services are entered into by public organizations . It can be international organizations UN systems, which act as large buyers of goods, medicines, medical equipment, services, etc. In addition, such public organizations as the Society of Hunters and Fishermen, the Union of Artists, the Society for Nature Conservation, the Society of the Disabled, the Society of the Deaf, the Association of the Visually Impaired, etc. operate in the market of the Republic of Belarus.

Question 5. Information support for commercial activities .

Answer. Information (lat. - information ) - a message about something.

Commercial information - This is information about the current situation in the market for various goods and services. This includes quantitative and qualitative indicators of the company’s trading activities (commercial structure, trading enterprise, etc.), various information and data on commercial activities (prices, suppliers, competitors, delivery conditions, payments, range of goods, etc.).

The purpose of commercial information is that it allows trade organizations (enterprises) to analyze their commercial activities, plan them, and monitor the results of these activities (work efficiency).

For a businessman for successful work as necessary as air commercial information. He needs constant information about clients, competitors, dealers (intermediary businessmen). Operational data for analysis, planning, control.

Market situation constantly changing or may change at any moment. And if there is no continuous supply (updating) of information data, the company may fail to react in time for certain changes. Any businessman of a Western company, before answering the question “What is the position of a particular product on the market?”, will turn to a database about this product stored in a computer (Internet).

Sources of commercial information can serve:

-marketing research for specific products;

An important source of commercial information is internal materials and documents of a trading company, in particular, information on turnover volumes, sales costs, inventories, profits, advertising costs, etc.;

Another source of commercial information is external statistics data and information about the state of the market published in the media.

Recently, it has become increasingly widespread purchasing information from various companies,

The most important element of commercial activity is a comprehensive study of the market for goods and services:

1. Studying customers and purchasing motives.

2. Studying market requirements for a product

3 . Careful study of its conjuncture ;

4. AND research competitive environment and competitors;

5 .Studying the potential capabilities of a trade organization and its competitiveness .

Consumer information is economic foundation commercial activity, as it contributes to the formation of offers on the market of goods and services in accordance with their demand. Information about consumers and their requests increases the efficiency of commercial work.

For successful commercial activities, it is important correct choice of goods and services to be traded.

Main expert when evaluating goods is the buyer Therefore, it is important to find out exactly how the product is perceived by the end consumer.

Competitiveness t A product is a set of its characteristics associated with the sale and consumption of services.

Trade organization, You must have the following information about the product:

its quality (technical and economic indicators, operational characteristics; consumer properties, environmental friendliness, safety, ergonomic, aesthetic indicators, compliance with standard requirements, technical specifications, regulatory documents, certificates, etc.). Attention is drawn on the ratio of quality and price.

Of no small importance is product packaging ..

When studying a product, you need to determine which is acceptable scheme for promoting it to the market, what methods of sales and sales promotion, how much will the work cost? with this product on the market.

Question 6. Trade secret and its protection.

Answer. Unlike the state trade secret is determined directly by a specific enterprise (organization) independently, is its property and is protected by the security service of the enterprise itself. With the development of market relations, the role of commercial information increases. It becomes a commodity and a means of competition. In this regard, the attitude towards its protection is changing.

The legislation of the Republic of Belarus establishes the right to a certain freedom of entrepreneurship, protection of one’s interests in relations with the state and other subjects of market relations.

In the Republic of Belarus, the concept of a trade secret is given in Regulations on trade secrets, approved by the Council of Ministers of the Republic of Belarus.

Trade secret - deliberately hidden economic interests and information about various aspects and spheres of production, economic, management, scientific and technical, financial activities business entities, the protection of which is due to the interests of competition and a possible threat economic security business entity.

Information constituting a trade secret is the property of the business entity. In a real situation, trade secrets always appear in the form of trade secrets. Therefore, every secret is a secret, but not every secret is a secret.

Commercial secrets are a form of manifestation of trade secrets..

Classified I trade secrets by the nature of a trade secret, by ownership, by purpose of trade secrets.

Bearer of a trade secret is a person aware of the trade secrets of the enterprise, and the sources of classified commercial information are documents, diagrams, technologies, samples, products, know-how.

Can cause great damage to organizations industrial espionage. This is an illegal collection of information constituting a trade secret.

As a document that formulates the accumulated international practice principles, is the Paris Convention on the protection of industrial property (1883).

In the Republic of Belarus, a unified concept of trade secrets and special legislation regulating and protecting it.

Its various aspects are regulated by the laws on patents for industrial designs; About trademarks and service marks; About patents for images and utility models; Regulations on trade secrets. The latest document defines the economic and legal basis for the protection of trade secrets. Uniform requirements for information have been formulated, constituting a trade secret, assuming the following:

trade secret may constitute information of actual or potential value;

information should not be generally known and accessible to the public;

information that is a trade secret, must be marked accordingly (top secret, for official use, etc.);

information should not be a state secret and protected by copyright or patent law;

shouldn't touch negative activities of a business entity that can harm the interests of the state.

The Regulations on trade secrets are clearly defined for business entities of all forms of ownership and departmental affiliation, what information cannot be classified as a trade secret, namely:

constituent documents , licenses for licensed types of activities;

intelligence, provided for by established reporting forms on the financial and economic activities of the enterprise; data required e to verify the correctness of payment of taxes and other obligatory payments; documentation about solvency, etc.

The methodology for classifying certain information as a trade secret in the Republic of Belarus is still not formed. Each organization and its leader decides this issue independently.

The object of a trade secret is information that can be divided into next two groups :

Business information ; Scientific and technical (technological) information :

According to the degree of secrecy, it can be :

strictly confidential, confidential, not subject to public disclosure ,.

Sociological surveys indicate that among methods of illegal acquisition of commercial secretly takes first place bribery of employees, i.e. human factor. Followed by espionage. Currently very widely used technical facilities penetration, which requires special protective measures.

Information protection involves preventing leakage, theft, loss, unauthorized access, copying, destruction, distortion, modification (forgery), blocking of information, etc.

The mechanism for protecting trade secrets should include the following blocks:

At the macro level : rules of law, aimed at protecting the interests of its owner (laws, decrees, regulations, etc.).

At the micro level : standards set by the manager organizations (orders, instructions, instructions);

special structural divisions;

effective system of measures on the protection of trade secrets, which must be comprehensive;

Organizational work . It includes development concepts ensuring the security of information constituting a trade secret, and the formation of a package of necessary organizational and planning documentation that ensures its effective protection, confirmed by the competent authorities.

Question 7. The concept of consumer demand and the tasks of studying it

Answer. Demand - an effective need for goods and services on the market or a form of manifestation of that part of the need that is provided by purchasing power, that is, money.

In consumer demand there are volume and structure.

Volume of demand determined by the amount of money available to the population minus the amount of non-commodity expenses.

Total demand is fixed only in monetary terms, and the volume of demand for individual goods in total and in physical terms.

Demand structure expresses the quantitative ratio of effective needs for individual goods.

Problems of studying demand. The essence of demand, its relationship with needs, product supply, as well as the dependence of demand on many factors are a necessary prerequisite for understanding the purpose, objective and importance of its study.

The process of studying demand in retail trade is the collection, processing and analysis of the necessary information for strategic, tactical and operational decisions on the development of the production of consumer goods, inventory management, as well as their purchase and sale. From this definition, the strategic importance of studying demand in trade for the subsequent use of this information becomes clear manufacturing enterprises. This information can be offered to manufacturing companies as a marketing service, and this can generate additional income for the trade.

Question 8. Types of consumer demand.

Answer. P purchasing demand is divided into:

realized (demand that is satisfied in the form of the purchase of a product or service; expressed quantitatively by the amount of goods sold);

dissatisfied th(demand for goods that were not on sale at a certain point in time, although they are produced and in circulation);

emerging (demand for goods that are being prepared for production).

When studying demand, the following are important: classification features:

According to the nature of the need for purchase:

* steady demand(not allowing replacement of goods);

* unstable(finally formed in the store with direct

familiarization with goods);

impulsive(arises under the influence of impulses; the decisive role of the seller; advertising; a wide selection of goods).

By degree of repeatability:

* primary(demand for goods purchased for the first time);

* repeated(demand for familiar or replacement products).

By frequency of demand:

* everyday;* periodic:* episodic.

By prevalence:

* unit; * limited;* mass.

Question 9. Methods for studying population demand

Answer: Demand Study – is the collection, processing and analysis of information necessary for

making planned decisions on the production of goods and making commercial decisions on the purchase and sale of goods.

Demand Study Methods– a set of methods and techniques by which information about demand is collected, processed and analyzed, its quantitative dimensions and qualitative characteristics are determined

Methods for studying demand are chosen depending on the type of store, the specifics of the product, types of demand, information support, tasks and goals of the study.

Realized demand : when studying it, methods of systematic and periodic recording of demand are used.

Methods of systematic study:

* automated accounting using computers;

* registration of purchases in special journals, highlighting various characteristics of products necessary for research;

* accounting of cash receipts, allowing you to determine the cost goods sold at a known price for their quantity;

* accounting of sales receipts;

* accounting for sales of goods using two labels.

You can periodically study realized demand using balance method.

Sales = beginning inventories + receipts – closing inventories – documented consumption. Exhibitions – Sales also to study realized demand.

Unsatisfied demand for goods of sufficient assortment can be studied using the following methods:

* customer surveys in written and oral form;

* according to the log of unsatisfied demand, in which store employees must register goods requested by the buyer, but not on sale;

* registration of unsatisfied demand sheets filled out by buyers;

* holding days of unsatisfied demand.

Emerging demand . Methods: exhibitions – viewing samples of new products, testing new products by specialists, trade workers and buyers, trial sales, sales exhibitions, tasting exhibitions, oral and written surveys, buyer conferences.

In addition to the above methods of studying demand, the following are also used:

-expert assessments of the balance of the intragroup structure of supply and demand. Experts are experienced specialists who have knowledge and are able to express a reasoned opinion about the phenomenon and process being studied;

- commodity examination of new products;

Question 10. Features of studying demand in wholesale trade.

Answer. The main goals of studying market conditions and demand of wholesale trade enterprises :

Organization and implementation of comprehensive observations of trade conditions and the demand of wholesale buyers in the area of ​​​​operation;

Organization of receiving and processing information about trade conditions and population demand from enterprises and retail organizations;

Organization of receiving and processing information on plans for the development of production and supply of new goods from industrial enterprises and other suppliers;

Organizing the preparation of forecast calculations, market reviews of market conditions necessary to determine the volume of goods purchased, as well as working with suppliers to improve the range and quality of goods.

Commercial observations following the development of market conditions, To meet demand, wholesale enterprises carry out a special program that covers:

Analysis of the regulatory impact of the state on the price level and quality requirements for goods;

Studying the volumes and structure of supply of goods from industrial enterprises and other suppliers;

Determination of the total volume of demand and its structure by product groups; study and forecast of the demand structure in the assortment;

Study of demand by type: realized, unsatisfied, emerging;

Assessing the degree of demand satisfaction by analyzing information about the production, supply and sale of goods.

Besides to study demand wholesale enterprises are carried out active events such as: sales exhibitions, exhibitions and viewings, buyer conferences, surveys of buyers and experts, merchandising examinations of new products and much more.

Question 11. Market conditions: concept, objectives and goals of its study

Answer: Market conditions - This is a specific economic situation in the market for consumer goods, characterized by a certain relationship between supply and demand, the price level, the size of inventory and is subject to dynamic changes.

Taking this into account, under market conditions one should understand the entire set of economic conditions emerging on the market at any given moment under which the process of selling goods and services is carried out.

Figuratively speaking, market conditions there is an indicator of his “health”.

Purpose of study. The main objectives of studying market conditions are:

* organization and direct implementation of comprehensive observations of the market conditions and demand of wholesale buyers in the area of ​​its activity;

* organization of receiving and processing information about the market situation and population demand from enterprises and retail organizations;

* organizing the receipt and processing of information on plans for the development of production and supply, the introduction of new products from industrial enterprises and other suppliers;

* organizing the preparation of forecast calculations, market reviews necessary to determine the volume of purchases of various goods, as well as for ongoing work with suppliers to improve the range and quality of goods

Considering that market conditions is a set of conditions, factors, under the influence of which a certain relationship between supply and demand is formed, the commercial service should know these factors and the degree of their influence, the demand of the population, its structure, reasons for change, features of formation and development.

The commercial service must have data on the possible volumes and structure of product offerings, the degree of updating of the assortment, information about new products, information characterizing the product, price levels, offers from suppliers and the possibilities of increasing them.

Conjuncture items – market participants; structure and volume of movement of goods on the market; demand and consumption of goods; competitors' policies; commercial conditions for the sale of products.

Tasks : -With systematic observation of changes in the market of goods and their nomenclature;

Control over the constant availability of the established range of goods for sale and its timely replenishment;

Registration of realized and unsatisfied demand;

Identification of emerging demand;

Maintaining selective accounting of sales and inventories according to the intragroup structure of goods;

Preparation of proposals to improve the quality and assortment structure of manufactured goods.

Market conditions may be favorable (the population’s demand for goods and services is fully satisfied, the product supply in terms of range and quality meets consumer requirements and is ensured high level buyer culture).

Unfavorable I(the results of market observations are summarized in the market review).

Question 12. The concept and essence of the assortment policy of a trading enterprise .

Answer In conditions of developing competition and increasing uncertainty in the environment external to the enterprise, it becomes increasingly necessary strategic approach to management of trade assortment. This approach is ensured by the development of an assortment policy for organizing trade. Assortment policy of a trade organization - a system of strategic measures aimed at creating a competitive model ensuring a stable position of the enterprise in the market and obtaining the necessary profit.

This policy is a central element of the organization's commercial strategy in the retail market. Its main goal in modern conditions management is to determine the set of goods most preferred by the consumers served.

However, it is difficult to satisfy the product needs of all consumers without exception, since they differ in their requirements for the product and service. This problem is resolved segmentation- separation potential buyers for certain groups according to certain criteria (gender, age, level of monetary income, social status, etc.).

Main goal of segmentation - ensure the targeting of goods and services sold. Market segmentation- one of the most important tools of assortment policy, and the competitiveness of the organization largely depends on how correctly the market segment(s) are chosen.

The choice of market segment(s) and the development of all components of the trade organization policy in the area of ​​assortment, taking into account the requirements of a specific group of consumers, taking into account environmental factors, allows define such an assortment policy as active.

Thus, active assortment policy involves solving the following most important tasks: meeting the demand of specific consumer groups; flexible response to market requirements; ensuring the financial stability of a trading organization.

The assortment policy for a specific store (or trade organization), expressed in a developed, approved and agreed upon assortment list(s), requires implementation assortment positioning .

Assortment positioning of a trade organization - the process of selecting special competitive advantages in the range of goods and services offered, and communicating information about them to the target consumer.

The purpose of positioning is to find a special niche within the target segment that is not occupied by competitors. For example, Milavitsa brand stores present themselves in the group of corsage products of all types and a significant number of varieties.

The development and implementation of assortment policy requires compliance with the following conditions:

A clear understanding of the organization’s commercial strategy in the retail market;

Good knowledge of the retail market and the nature of consumer requirements;

A clear idea of ​​your capabilities and resources now and in the future.

A well-thought-out assortment policy of a retail trade organization is a kind of guarantor of not only the construction of an optimal assortment model of the store, but also the preservation of competitive positions in the market, and influences the formation of the image of the enterprise

Question 13. Indicators characterizing the state of the store’s product range .

Answer. The assortment of any store can be characterize using a system of indicators. This will allow you to carry out the process of managing the trade assortment on scientific basis, i.e. plan, organize its formation, control and regulate the assortment, improve the motivation of sellers and sales promotion.

Breadth of assortment - the number of groups and subgroups of goods included in the store’s assortment. Based on their share in turnover and inventories, the assortment structure is distinguished specialty and department stores .

Depth of assortment - the number of types and varieties (names) of goods within groups and subgroups in the store’s assortment.

For example, latitude The assortment of the department store with a sales area of ​​650 m2 is represented by the following groups: fabrics, garments, knitted goods, shoes and haberdashery. And 99 varieties of fabrics, 316 varieties of garments, 311 varieties of knitted goods and 139 varieties of shoes and 109 haberdashery products define depth of assortment of this store .

Assortment structure - this is the ratio of groups, subgroups, types and varieties of goods in the store’s assortment. It is characterized by indicators of breadth and depth. The structure of the assortment is of decisive importance when organizing its formation in the store.

There are concepts macro- and microstructures assortment of store goods.

Under macrostructure understand the relationship between groups of goods in the general assortment, and by microstructure - the ratio of species and varieties in each product group.

In maintaining the range of goods in accordance with the demand of the population, they play an important role completeness and stability assortment of goods in the store.

Completeness of assortment - this is the compliance of the actual availability of goods in the store with the approved assortment list.

Assortment renewal - replenishment of the assortment with new varieties of goods in accordance with the assortment policy of the enterprise. It is acceptable to update up to 10% of the store’s assortment per year.

A special place among indicators of the state of the assortment is occupied by its profitability indicator. Under profitability of the retail assortment understand such an assortment set, which in its entirety ensures that business entities receive the planned amount of net profit, i.e. a certain excess of income over costs of selling goods and tax and non-tax payments

Question 14. Formation of an assortment of goods in wholesale trade enterprises

Answer: Wholesale trade, acting as an intermediary between production and consumers, must ensure a rhythmic supply of goods to retail trading network, meeting the demand of customers in terms of quantity, range and quality. Therefore, the formation of the assortment of the wholesale base is its most important commercial function.

Formation of product range in wholesale trade involves the development and establishment in a certain order of a product range designed to satisfy customer demand and ensure the profitable operation of the base

The formation of the product range of wholesale organizations is influenced by:

1. Specialization of a wholesale intermediary

2. Contingent of wholesale buyers

3. Conditions of goods supply, etc.

The range of wholesale organizations includes group and intragroup

structure of goods, therefore the formation of the assortment is carried out in two stages, i.e.:

Set up a group assortment based on marketing research;

Calculate the number of varieties of each type of product;

Formation process The wholesale organization's assortment includes:

1. Assessment of the current situation in wholesale trade

2. Development of a product policy strategy

3. Expanding the range with new products and improving its structure;

4. Ensuring the sustainability of the range of consumer goods;

5. Achieving conditions conducive to the growth of trade turnover and trading income

organizations.

In practice, the development of assortment models for wholesale warehouses is often used.

It consists of three stages:

Determination of the group assortment structure of the wholesale base;

Justification of the number of varieties of goods required to form the annual assortment;

Definition is minimal required quantity varieties of goods, which must be constantly in the warehouses of the base (irreducible assortment

Question 15. Principles and stages of organizing the range of goods in retail enterprises

Answer: Basic principles formation of a product range in trade organizations are:

1. Compliance with the established assortment profile of the organization

2. Ensuring complexity in the selection of goods in accordance with public demand

3. The range of goods in organizations should stimulate the consumer to purchase and be wider than the range of requested goods in order to provide him with a choice.

Specific factors influencing the formation of a product range reflect the specific operating conditions of a trading organization. These include the type of store and the size of the store, conditions of goods supply, the number and composition of the population served, transport conditions, the presence of other trade organizations in the area of ​​operation of this store.

The process of forming an assortment of goods in various stores has its own characteristics. Thus, in supermarkets food and non-food products are distinguished, and within groups the entire range of goods is divided into product subgroups, groups and names, and varieties are distinguished within names.

In the Republic of Tatarstan, the process of forming an assortment includes 3 stages:

1. A group assortment of goods is established

2. The structure of the group assortment is calculated

3. The intra-group expanded range of goods is determined, specific varieties of goods are selected within each group.

Question 16. Formation of the assortment of goods in stores according to consumer complexes

Answer. When forming an assortment in non-food stores consumer complexes, products are combined by the principle of unity of their consumer purpose. The introduction of such complexes into the practice of trade organizations allows:

1. Improve customer service culture by:

Serving a certain category of customers and reducing their time spent on purchasing;

Providing services for the acquisition of several purchases in one place, including related products that were not planned in advance;

Best Show goods in consumer complexes, consultations, provision of services, etc.

2. Ensure systematization of the range of goods.

3. Identify patterns in needs and in the formation of a product range.

The range of consumer complexes can be formed according to the following characteristics:

Age and gender groups ( women's clothing, men's clothing);

Lifestyle, leisure activities for the population (goods for young technician);

Formal events (items for wedding gifts);

Traditions and habits of buyers (knitting, sewing and handicrafts);

Seasonality of demand (winter clothing), etc.

Distinguish macro and micro complexes.

Macro complexes represent sets of goods that are formed from the point of view of specialization with a certain breadth of assortment and volume of turnover; as an independent department of a department store.

Micro complexes are distinguished from macro complexes to meet consumer needs. They create a deep assortment of goods, increasing attention to the inclusion of various little things in the assortment.

Question 17. Inventories, their role in ensuring the uninterrupted trading process.

Answer. Wholesale, speaking intermediary between production and consumer, must provide rhythmic supply of goods retail chain that meets customer demand in terms of quantity, assortment and quality. Properly formed inventory plays a big role in increasing the level of trade service. Work to create optimal inventory at wholesale warehouses includes:

sizing optimal inventory;

operational inventory accounting and monitoring their condition;

regulation inventory.

Proper work with inventory solves a number of commercial problems related to the formation and maintenance of the range of goods at the required level in order to satisfy customer demand.

The need for commercial activities to manage inventory is due to the fact that demand for specific goods is dynamic, is influenced by many factors, which makes it difficult to make the right purchasing decisions. That's why there are miscalculations in this activity, which lead to the formation of reserves above or below demand. At presence of surplus goods, i.e. goods that are not in demand, have slowed down or stopped their movement, the costs of the wholesale organization for their storage, lending, and costs associated with deterioration in quality increase.

Inventory shortage leads to unsatisfaction of customer demand. As a result, sales volumes of goods are restrained, which leads to a deterioration in economic and financial condition wholesale organization

Various factors influence the size of inventory and its turnover. : consumer properties, quality of goods, price, transportation conditions, packaging and etc.

One of the main tasks of inventory management is ensuring acceleration of the turnover of funds invested in inventory.

For a wholesale organization, a product represents the main source of income only if it is sold, if it was purchased for resale for the purpose of making a profit. That's why commercial service the wholesale base must carry out competent work on procurement competitive products that satisfy consumer demand.

If range , quantity and quality of goods do not correspond to consumer requirements demand, this indicates an unsatisfactory state of inventory and ineffective commercial activities.

Increasing inventory, purchasing they require large quantities and large financial resources...

Inventory that is not in demand is not a valuable investment for the wholesaler. .

Speed ​​of circulation of goods is quality indicator activities of a wholesale organization and characterizes the efficiency of using funds invested in inventory.

Working with inventory it is necessary to take into account the reliability of fulfillment of supply contracts, the time it takes to bring the goods from the manufacturer to the final consumer, data from the analysis of the volume and structure of sales, both current and statistical reporting.

By investing heavily in the purchase of goods, wholesale centers expose themselves commercial risk. Justify commercial risk can only be a profitable activity. If this does not happen, the base's activities will be unprofitable.

A slowdown in turnover leads to a decrease in turnover, which, in turn, means a decrease in the capital turnover of the wholesale base and leads to an increase in the costs of storing and maintaining inventory in normal condition. This interdependence reflects the essence of the commercial work of managing inventory in both wholesale and retail trade.

Question 18. Essence and classification of economic relations for the supply of goods

Answer. The wholesale market is a market of enterprises (organizations) purchasing goods for their subsequent resale for profit.

The wholesale market is quite capacious and is characterized by a small number of entities operating in it compared to the retail market. The main subjects of the wholesale market are manufacturers of goods, intermediaries and retail organizations. As a rule, they purchase goods in large quantities. This kind of trade is called wholesale. It connects almost all sectors of the economy, material production and commodity circulation, and includes all stages of product promotion from manufacturers to retail organizations.

Wholesale trade on the commodity market is an integral part of the sphere of circulation. Through it, the accumulation and movement of goods in space and time is managed, and almost all commodity resources pass through. It is an important lever for maneuvering commodity resources both by region and by commodity markets. Through wholesale trade the consumer influences the producer in the direction of balancing supply and demand.

In turn, the manufacturer is looking for a market for its products, selecting a buyer taking into account its capabilities and on terms that suit him.

Main commercial tasks wholesale trade are:

Comprehensive study of the wholesale and retail markets;

Distribution of commodity resources across regions in accordance with demand, movement of goods from points of production to points of consumption;

Accumulation and storage of inventory in volumes necessary for uninterrupted supply of goods in wide range intermediary, retail organizations, end consumers;

Balancing the import and export of goods to the regions, taking into account justified needs;

Rhythmic supply of goods;

Ensuring reliability and stability of economic relations based on consumer priority;

Managing relationships between wholesale market entities using economic levers, reducing total costs associated with promoting goods from manufacturers to consumers;

provision of services to business partners.

Commercial work on wholesale market consists of operations for wholesale purchases and wholesale sales of goods.. Unlike bases, retail organizations act mainly as wholesale buyers. They carry out wholesale sales only in the order of small wholesale government agencies(hospitals, kindergartens, etc.).

The legal mechanism for regulating commercial activities is an integral part of the relationships between business entities and forms their legal relations with each other and with government bodies, as well as during arbitration consideration of business disputes.

In the process of promoting goods to the market, trade performs a connecting function between production and consumers. The relationships that arise between them are called economic ties.

The concept of “economic relations” includes economic, organizational, commercial, legal, administrative and other relations that develop between buyers and sellers in the process of supplying goods.

The system of economic relations is formed on the basis of freely performed acts of purchase and sale at the initiative of the parties and centralized distribution individual species goods under quotas and for government needs.

The opportunity to independently regulate relationships between market entities on the basis of legal norms provided for by the Civil Code of the Republic of Belarus is expanding.

The Civil Code of the Republic of Belarus determines the procedure for concluding, amending, executing and terminating supply contracts.

It defines the right of the Council of Ministers of the Republic of Belarus to approve Regulations on the supply of goods. For certain types of goods can be developed Special conditions supplies, which are approved in the manner established by the Council of Ministers of the Republic of Belarus.

Economic ties for the supply of goods are distinguished by structure and number of participants, duration of validity, and departmental characteristics.

Structure of economic relations can be simple or complex .

Simple business connections are concluded directly between the manufacturer of goods and retail trade organizations. They are installed when purchasing many food products, especially perishable ones, as well as non-food items, having a simple assortment and large-sized ones. Such connections are called direct. The advantages of direct economic relations are that unnecessary steps in the transshipment of goods are eliminated, commodity turnover is accelerated, the effectiveness of influencing the manufacturer on issues of updating the assortment, improving the quality of goods is increased, and the time for agreeing on delivery conditions is reduced.

Complex structure economic ties involves the participation of intermediaries, the number of which may vary. This structure of economic relations is less effective, reduces the efficiency of managing the process of bringing goods to the consumer, and reduces the effectiveness of influencing the manufacturer to produce the required assortment. It is appropriate for the supply of goods when accumulation, sub-sorting, and transformation of the assortment at the intermediary is required.

By validity period concluded contracts distinguish between one-time, short-term (up to one year) and long-term (more than a year) economic relations. If the need for goods is systematic, preference should be given to direct long-term economic ties; they guarantee greater stability.

By departmental affiliation participants are distinguished between intersystem and intrasystem economic relations.

At intersystem In economic relations, supply relationships are established between organizations of different systems, ministries, and departments.

In-system Economic relations are contractual relations between organizations of the same system, for example, consumer cooperation. The organization of economic relations involves performing the following commercial functions:

Impact of trade on output industrial enterprises goods needed by the market through its participation in the formation of production plans;

Work on concluding business contracts;

Ensuring the fulfillment of contractual obligations and property liability for their non-compliance;

Establishing optimal relations between business partners;

Legal regulation of economic relationships, etc.

These functions and their significance change as market relations develop and the independence and responsibility of the parties entering into

Question 19. Contractual work and its content.

Answer. General provisions and basic rules governing the system of contractual relations are established by the Civil Code of the Republic of Belarus. They are based on the principles of contract law. In connection with the declaration of the Republic of Belarus as a sovereign state and the transition to a market, the organization of contractual relations has undergone serious changes. The essence of these changes is that the range of business entities has expanded significantly and they have been given greater independence.

A supply agreement is a document that stipulates the rights and obligations of the parties for the supply of goods.

Subject of the agreement delivery is commodity. The supplier undertakes, within an agreed timeframe that does not coincide with the moment of conclusion of the contract, to transfer it to the buyer as ownership for business activities (and not for personal consumption), and the buyer undertakes to pay a certain price for it.

Parties to the agreement are the supplier and the buyer, both legal and individuals carrying out business activities. The supplier can be either a manufacturer or an intermediary. The buyer can be either a wholesale intermediary or a retail trade organization.

The supply agreement creates long term relationship between the parties, its execution, as a rule, is carried out in parts in agreed installments and within certain deadlines.

The contract for the supply of goods is concluded in writing.

Depending on the location of the parties, contracts for the supply of goods can be divided:

For those concluded between business entities of the Republic of Belarus (intra-republican);

Agreements concluded with business entities of other states ( interstate) .

They, in turn, are divided:

For contracts concluded on the basis of free will,

Agreements on supplies for government needs.

In the new economic conditions, the contract is a priority, because the independence of business entities is expanding, it becomes possible to more quickly respond to changes in market conditions, and better take into account the interests of the end consumer.

Preparation for concluding supply contracts. The development of a draft agreement in trade organizations is entrusted to commercial and legal services. All interested services endorse the contracts. The signatures of the heads of economic planning, production and financial departments, as well as the chief accountant, are required.

The use of typical x contracts for the supply of goods.

A standard contract is sample contract, which sets out in writing uniform terms and conditions based on trade practice. The model contract can be used in two ways.

First way - unconditional agreement of the parties with the conditions set out in it, which must be expressed by signing the agreement. Second way - use of a standard contract as a sample, which can be changed in accordance with the agreement of the parties on specific conditions.

Procedure for concluding contracts. Agreements can be concluded on the basis of:

State order for the supply of goods for state needs;

Initiatives of the parties and their mutual consent to enter into an agreement (commercial agreements).

Contractual relations based on government orders. State regulation of the economy is used in almost all countries of the world, but the forms and extent of such regulation are different. In the Republic of Belarus, one of the tools for this is an order for the supply of goods for government needs, which is widely used in other countries.

All contracts, regardless of the forms and grounds for conclusion, must be documented, signed by officials and recorded on a tangible medium with details that allow signatures to be identified. These documents must reflect the agreement of the parties on the mandatory terms of the contract.

The supply agreements concluded in this way come into force. After this, mutual responsibility arises for fulfilling the terms of the contract. Disputes arising between the parties are considered by economic courts. The procedure for changing and terminating the supply contract is regulated by the Civil Code of the Republic of Belarus and is reflected in Regulations on the supply of goods in the Republic of Belarus. The initiating party must notify the partner of the termination or amendment of the contract within the period specified in the contract. The party that received a proposal to terminate or amend the contract must respond within 10 days. If she agrees, it is issued additional agreement and signed by both parties or the parties exchange letters, telegrams.

Question 20. Legal regulation of economic relations for the supply of consumer goods

Question 21. Economic relations for the supply of goods for government needs in the Republic of Belarus

Question 22. Sources of wholesale purchases and suppliers of consumer goods

Answer: Source of income goods to the domestic market of the Republic of Belarus is:

1. Intra-republican industries National economy, producing TNP

2. Import of goods from CIS countries

3. Centralized import procurement

4. Cooperatives, joint ventures, small businesses

5. Barter transactions carried out centrally

Suppliers of goods are specific enterprises from various sources of income. All suppliers of goods are divided by:

a) t territorial basis:

* local

* interregional (regional)

* Republican

* foreign

b) By belonging to economic various systems

* in-system

* off-system

V) By occupation

*manufacturer suppliers

* intermediary suppliers (wholesale organizations at the republican and regional level of various product ranges)

Question 23. Wholesale fairs (concept, purpose, classification )

Answer: In the fair industry, two directions are defined depending on the nature of trade operations:

1. Fairs for the sale of products entered into primary circulation

2. Fairs for the sale of unused and surplus products

Before the fairs first type a wide range of tasks is set:

Strengthening the active influence of market trade on the formation of production plans based on marketing research;

Introduction into production of new products that meet the requirements of world standards; simultaneous identification of products with obsolescence, economically impractical to operate, and, therefore, recommended for discontinuation;

Work related to demonopolization in the sphere of production and circulation of products;

Responsibilities to ensure priority for consumers, increase economic impact on the supplier in case of violation of contractual obligations; an obstacle to the strong-willed methods and decisions of central authorities regarding the production and sale of products that contradict the economic interests of enterprises, regions, and industries.

Trade fairs second type solve problems regarding the rational use of labor, financial, material, and production resources.

By scale and nature Trade fairs carried out are divided into:

International fairs;

Republican fairs – connecting interests large quantity enterprises, associations with in various directions economic activity, specialization of production. Fairs focus on products of a very wide profile and range;

Regional (regional, regional, republican) fairs function to promptly satisfy consumers with necessary goods. Organizationally, they are more accessible to participants. The place, time, and theme of the fair are determined by the relevant departments with the participation of commercial structures of enterprises and associations. Fairs operate according to a schedule with a pre-set time and place. When coordinating schedules, it is necessary to ensure that the timing of fairs does not coincide in order to avoid their parallel work in nearby regions.

Specialized exhibitions can be stationary and mobile .

Every year, exhibitions in every industry provide favorable opportunities to learn something, appreciate something, and sell something.

If the exhibition is visited by the general public, the manufacturer has a unique chance to sell some of their goods and communicate directly with a large number of end buyers and find out their opinion regarding their quality and range.

To question 24 Operations performed during the wholesale sale of goods

Answer: commercial activity– the sphere of operational and organizational activities of trade organizations and enterprises aimed at carrying out processes of purchase and sale of goods to satisfy the demand of the population and make a profit.

Question 24. Methods for the wholesale sale of goods from warehouses of wholesale enterprises

Answer. Methods for wholesale sales of goods

Question 25. Concept, role and indicators of economic efficiency of advertising in commercial activities

Answer. The now widely used term "advertising" comes from the Latin word advertise - shout out (in Ancient Greece and Rome, trade announcements were loudly shouted or read out in squares and other crowded places).

By its essence, advertising is information about the consumer properties of goods and various types services in order to sell them and create demand for them. The Law “On Advertising” says that Advertising is information distributed in any form, by any means about an individual or legal entity, goods, ideas and endeavors (advertising information), which is intended for a certain circle of people and is designed to create or maintain interest in these goods, ideas and initiatives and facilitate the sale of goods, ideas and initiatives."

The most common area of ​​advertising activity is trade advertising, the object of which is goods, trading enterprises, and services provided by these enterprises. By its essence trade advertising- targeted dissemination of information about the consumer properties of goods and various types of services accompanying the sale of these goods in order to attract the attention of consumers to them in order to create demand for these goods and services and increase the volume of their sales.

Advertising messages differ from ordinary informational messages in that they perform the function of a persuasive influence on a person in order to encourage him to purchase certain goods (services). Advertising is part of marketing, the task of which is to ensure uninterrupted sales of manufactured products.

Advertising must accurately and truthfully inform the consumer about the quality, properties, range, rules of use (operation) and consumption of goods, as well as provide other information about goods and services. It is unacceptable to use exaggerated data about the quality of goods in advertising messages or, moreover, to deceive consumers, present a counterfeit product as a full-fledged one, or influence the base inclinations of a person and other negative motivations. The design of advertising must meet modern aesthetic requirements, and the costs of its organization should not exceed reasonable (rational) sizes.

Advertising, on the one hand, conveys to consumers various information necessary for the purchase and use of goods, on the other hand, combining its informational content with persuasiveness and suggestibility, it has an emotional and mental impact on a person.

In addition, trade advertising should help improve the quality of trade customer service. With the help of advertising, buyers quickly find the goods they need, purchase them with the greatest convenience and the least amount of time.

It is equally important to inform the population about individual trading enterprises, the services they offer, opening hours, sales methods, and the features of their activities.

Truthfulness- compliance of information about goods, their quality, advantages and benefits with reality

Specificity is expressed in convincing arguments and digital data used in the text of the advertising message; accordingly, in advertising graphics, compliance with this principle eliminates unjustified formalism and techniques that are incomprehensible to a wide range of advertising users

Focus advertising means that its starting point is the advertised goods and market conditions, and its object is the consumer. Compliance with this principle prevents irrational spending of funds, allows you to evaluate the effectiveness of using one or another means of advertising, its impact on increasing the turnover of a trading enterprise, as well as its emotional and psychological impact.

In modern conditions, a wide variety of advertising means are used, among which it is necessary, first of all, to highlight print advertising, radio and television advertising, advertising in the press, audiovisual, outdoor, display and exhibition advertising and other types.

Determination of economic efficiency

Definition psychological effectiveness(evaluation of consumer response to

complex of communications).

Economic efficiency determined by measuring the impact of advertising on turnover, profits and profitability.

Additional turnover under the influence of advertising is determined by the formula:

T d = (T 2 – T 1) D, where:

P = T d P/100 – Z, where

P – profitability of sales;

Profitability calculated by the formula:

The main means of internal advertising of a store is the interior of the sales area; advertising display and display of goods inside a retail establishment; advertising signs, posters and posters, as well as promotional activities such as in-store radio advertising, tasting of new products, usually food products, etc.

Advertising purposes are served not only by window displays, but also by in-store exhibitions of goods. The placement of goods inside the store should be convenient for inspection and selection, increase the independence of customers, and help them make purchases with the least amount of time. In stores that use the traditional sales method, an in-store exhibition is arranged on wall and counter equipment, which forms the basis of salespeople’s workplaces. In self-service stores, the sales area should be an exhibition of goods that orients customers, helping them find the right section and the product they need. In modern self-service stores (department stores, supermarkets), the facade of the building is often a solid glass wall, through which the entire sales area is clearly visible. Therefore, in these stores it is necessary to arrange in-store exhibitions of goods, visible through the glazed facade, or install multi-tiered double-sided display cases close to the glazed facade. On one side of such a display rack, facing the sales floor, customers select goods.

With self-service, the first place comes to the decorative and artistic design of store windows and the sales area of ​​the store, and advertising information for visitors. This information concerns the location of departments, sections and placement of goods in trading floor, indicating the most rational flow patterns of customers, the procedure for selecting payment for goods.

The means of advertising goods in a store also include printed advertising - advertisements and articles in newspapers and magazines, as well as posters, leaflets, brochures, catalogs, advertising letters, posters and leaflets, memos and inserts, product labels, labels, advertising texts on packaging materials etc. This type of advertising occupies the main share in advertising of goods. By using print advertising You can inform the population on a wide variety of issues regarding the purchase, use, and consumer properties of goods sold by the store.

- Advertising broadcasts on the radio - it is operational and mass product communication and psychological impact on customers both inside the store and outside the store. Radio advertising is very diverse in terms of broadcast forms. Radio advertising uses such genres as dialogues, reports, announcements, often accompanied by music.

- Demo advertising involves holding a show (demonstration) of new models of ready-made clothing, hats, shoes, timed to coincide with the beginning of the corresponding season; demonstration of technically complex products in action and consultation on the rules of their use; tasting of new food products little known to the population, etc.

Question 27. The essence and goals of commercial activities to stimulate sales

Answer. Sales promotion is a set of techniques used throughout life cycle goods in relation to three market participants (consumer, wholesaler, seller) with the aim of short-term increasing sales volume, as well as increasing the number of new buyers.

Depending on the purpose incentives can be:

non-price;

price .

Establishing sales promotion goals is focused on the main goals of the commercial strategy of a retail organization. Therefore, along with strategic goals, specific and one-time ones can be implemented.

The management, and therefore the establishment of incentive goals, is carried out by the managers of the commercial department, taking into account the opinions of the managers of the trading floors and sales representatives manufacturing enterprises.

Non-price means of sales promotion

Under non-price means of stimulation mean the use of commercial, technological, organizational and economic opportunities aimed at increasing sales, but not related to changes in the price of the product.

Among non-price incentives, a special role belongs to oral consultations And seller advertising .

An effective means of non-price incentives is also rational placement And efficient display of goods. The main task of the sales floor manager is the most advantageous presentation of the entire assortment and each product separately.

It is necessary to distinguish between the concepts of “placement” and “display” of goods on the sales floor.

Product placement involves the distribution of the assortment over the entire area of ​​the sales floor, taking into account the frequency of demand, the complexity of acquisition, interchangeability, dimensions and weight of goods, and the specific properties of the goods.

Under display of goods You should understand certain ways of laying and displaying goods on the display area of ​​the sales floor. For each product, the most appropriate way to display it must be determined.

Stores use vertical, horizontal, combined systems for displaying goods and displaying in bulk.

Display in self-service stores based on principles merchandising

Display for self-service stores plays a special role, since it is the display that should influence the purchasing decision.

The following types of display are distinguished in self-service stores:

The main one is the display on the shelves of island and wall slides;

Display of products on trays;

Special display.

The sales floor manager must know and ensure the implementation of the following principles of placement and display of goods, based on knowledge of buyer psychology and merchandising:

1. "Inexpensive forward." Inexpensive goods create a favorable impression of the store's price level, so they are placed at the beginning of the sales floor.

2. "The principle of stripes." Products with low prices and high-profit products are rotated as the buyer moves through the sales area. But the goods that provide the greatest profit should not be placed at the end of the route, otherwise, by the time they reach it, the buyer will already have a full basket and an empty wallet.

3. "The two-finger principle." The height of the shelf must correspond to the product being sold. It is believed that if you can fit two fingers between the top edge of the product and the next shelf, you need to change the distance between the shelves.

4. "Shelf extensions." The use of plywood, wire, metal shelf extensions, and wire baskets can increase the efficiency of shelving displays.

5. "Overview and Accessibility." The product must be laid out with the front part of the packaging facing the buyer.

6. 6.“Neatness of display and constant replenishment of supplies.”

7."The shelves are full." Maximum turnover in self-service stores is only possible when the shelves are fully stocked. If your main assortment is sold out, you can fill the empty shelves with impulse items.

World experience. The human eye can perceive a product if at least 3-5 identical packs (packages) are presented nearby. Whatever the width of the shelf, the product should stand relatively freely.

Display of products on trays - a popular way of placing goods both on shelves (if a lot of front row goods can be placed on them) and in mass displays.

The packaging is a tray with a product wrapped in a stretchable thin film and has the following characteristics:

Special display. The main display on the slides creates the necessary background for a special display of goods in the sales area (occupies about 5% of all store sales). It serves as the main means of attracting the attention of buyers to the sale of special, from a commercial point of view, goods.

Mass displays used mainly for everyday goods and goods in high demand.

Price Sales Promotion Tools

All types of incentives based on direct or indirect, immediate or delayed reduction in the selling price are classified as price

A fairly common price incentive is selling at reduced prices.

Retail sales professionals often highlight not only the advantages, but also the commercial disadvantages of discount sales. Generalization of different points of view made it possible to identify the following advantages and disadvantages.

Question 28. A system of indicators characterizing the effectiveness of commercial activities.

Answer. It is very difficult to evaluate and analyze the activities of a trading enterprise. The difficulty lies in the fact that any commercial organization, regardless of its size, scope of activity, profitability or unprofitability, is a complex system that interacts with the market environment. Therefore, it is unlikely that there is a single indicator that could comprehensively reflect all aspects of the commercial activity of an enterprise. Even profit cannot be such an indicator.

For a comprehensive assessment of the effectiveness of commercial activities, it is necessary indicator system. These indicators are: (profit will still come first)

Profit (from sales and balance sheet) is the most important indicator of the effectiveness of the commercial activities of a trading enterprise. It reflects the results of all trading activities of the enterprise - volume products sold, its composition and assortment structure, labor productivity, cost level, the presence of unproductive expenses and losses, etc.:

The volume of trade turnover and its growth rate;

Inventories (in amount and days) and compliance with their standards;

Turnover (in days and turnover) - the time during which the goods are sold;

Profitability (ratio of profit to turnover);

Level of distribution costs (ratio of the sum of distribution costs to turnover);

Financial stability ratio (ratio of equity and borrowed funds);

Coefficient current liquidity(ratio of working capital to the amount of current short-term liabilities, accounts payable and loans);

Ownership ratio working capital(ratio of SOS to the same current assets).

Question 29. Concept, essence, subject and subject of leasing

Answer. The term "leasing" comes from the English verb to 1ease- rent, lease. The history of leasing relations dates back to the 20th century. BC e., as evidenced by archaeological excavations in the ancient state of Sumer, and not, as is commonly believed, in the last century in America. However, the term "leasing" came into use in 1877, when the Bell Telephone Company decided not to sell its telephone sets, but to lease them. The first independent leasing company, United States Leasing Corporation, was created in San Francisco (USA) in 1952.

"Leasing- a type of investment activity for the acquisition of property and its transfer on the basis of a leasing agreement to individuals or legal entities for a certain fee, for a certain period and under certain conditions stipulated by the agreement, with the right to purchase the property by the lessee." In addition, there is a definition given by the group World Bank: "Leasing is a contractual relationship between two parties that allows one party (the lessee) to use property owned by the other party (the lessor) in exchange for agreed upon periodic payments."

From an economic point of view property is leased for a certain period (lease term) with the condition of its return, for which the owner receives a reward (leasing payments). Thus, all conditions of credit relations are met: urgency, repayment and payment, and, therefore, Leasing can be considered as a specific method of lending.

The Civil Code of the Republic of Belarus (Article 636) establishes the concept of a financial lease agreement: “Under a financial lease agreement (leasing agreement), the lessor undertakes to acquire ownership of the specified property from a specific seller and provide the lessee with this property for a fee in temporary possession and use for business purposes."

According to current legislation (Article 637 of the Civil Code of the Republic of Belarus) subject of leasing“can be any non-consumable things used for business activities, except for land and other natural objects.”

The obligation to use the property leased only for business activities predetermines that the subject of leasing can be both movable and immovable property, which is an object of fixed assets.

Real estate objects include buildings and structures for industrial purposes.

Leasing subjects. IN Federal law The Russian Federation “On Leasing” defines three subjects of leasing: lessor, lessee, seller.

Depending on the period of use of the property acquired under the contract, there are financial and operational leasing .

financial leasing- a type of leasing in which the lessor undertakes to acquire ownership of the property specified by the lessee from a specific seller and transfer this property to the lessee as a leased item for a certain fee, for a certain period and under certain conditions for temporary possession and use

Operating leasing- a type of leasing in which the lessor purchases property at his own risk and transfers it to the lessee as a leased item for a certain fee, for a certain period and under certain conditions for temporary possession and use

Mixed leasing- is a leasing that contains elements of financial and operational leasing

Question 30. The essence of franchising and its role in the development of small businesses

Answer. The word "franchising" comes from the French " franchise ", which means "benefit, privilege, exemption from tax, contribution." Subsequently, this word took hold in English-speaking countries. In the Civil Code of the Russian Federation (Article 1027), this term is called “commercial concession” and “commercial concession agreement.”

By its essence franchising is a system of relationships consisting in the paid transfer by one party (a company that, as a rule, has a pronounced image and high reputation in the market of goods and services) to the other party (a company or an individual private entrepreneur) of its means of individualizing the goods produced, work performed or services provided ( trademark or service mark, corporate identity), business technology and other commercial information, the use of which by the other party will promote growth and a secure foothold in the market for goods and services.

In this case, the transferring party undertakes to assist in the establishment of the business and provide technical and consulting assistance.

The emergence of franchising dates back to the early 1800s, with the so-called associated house system used by British brewers. In 1860, the Singer factory, specializing in the production of sewing machines, operated under a scheme very close to franchising.

Formula developed in 1886 "Coca-Co1a"and its sale in 1900 led to a powerful impetus in the development of franchising; the system began to rapidly spread under the Coca-Co1a brand, known to everyone to this day. The greatest success in the development of this system was achieved in the 50s of the last century by the brothers Mac Donald. Currently, the McDonald's franchise system includes about 20 thousand enterprises in different countries of the world.

In the Republic of Belarus, McDonald's can serve as an example of franchising.

Stabilization and further revitalization of the Russian economy are most directly related to solving the problems of small business development. The role of this sector of the economy has been seriously rethought in recent decades. Now it is considered as a necessary condition for self-development and stability of one’s economic system. Thus, there are about 20 million small firms in the USA, and more than 6.5 million in Japan.

Franchising proved its high efficiency and viability even in the conditions of the economic recession of the mid-70s. The position of franchising companies has been especially strong since the early 80s, when during the presidency of R. Reagan, the United States experienced economic growth. The following statistics were cited in American literature: during these years, one franchise enterprise was opened in the United States every 6.5 minutes.

Having gained a lot of domestic experience, American franchising has moved abroad to take root in other markets. Many companies have sold their franchises in other countries, and some of them have rapidly expanded their international network. Currently, more than 350 U.S. firms and their franchisees operate more than 32,000 retail outlets in other countries.

The rapid development of franchising is observed in Canada, Western Europe, Japan, the countries of the Pacific region, Australia, and the countries of the Caribbean Sea region. Franchisors from other countries are also looking at the Russian market. Apparently, international franchising will develop at an even faster pace in the near future. Franchisors are looking for potential franchisees in foreign countries, and many individuals and firms are actively looking for franchisors from other countries in order to acquire their license and rights and, with their financial support, to use their production and service technologies to do their profitable business.

Commercial activity is activity in the market for factors of production, where the enterprise acts first as a buyer, and in the market for goods produced by the enterprise, where it acts as a seller.

All activities of an enterprise in the markets determine the area of ​​​​commercial activity, the purpose of which is to make a profit. Commercial activity is an independent activity. This indicates the volitional source of commercial activity. Citizens and legal entities independently, i.e., with their own authority and in their own interests, carry out commercial activities.

Commercial activities are organized by a person at his own discretion. It is not managed directly by any public authority, but this does not exclude its regulation by the state. Intervention of the state and its bodies in the activities of an entrepreneur not provided for by law is not permitted. An entrepreneur has the right to contact arbitration court with an application for invalidation (in whole or in part) of regulations government agencies or local government bodies that do not comply with the law or other legal acts and violating the civil rights and legally protected interests of the entrepreneur.

The commercial activities of enterprises are differentiated:

1) for the object of sale (factors of production necessary for the implementation production process; goods produced and technologies created; idle production assets; free cash and paper assets);

2) by the role that the enterprise plays in the purchase and sale process (in some cases it acts as a buyer, in others – as a seller);

3) by the nature of the change in ownership (ownership rights are transferred to another person - sale, purchase; ownership rights are not transferred to another person - rent, leasing);

4) by the nature of the benefit as a result of the transaction: direct receipt of profit (sale of manufactured goods and developed technologies, performance of work and provision of services), creation of conditions for making a profit in the future (purchase of production factors), reduction of production costs (sale and rental of free assets), capitalization of available funds (investment in securities).

The markets in which commercial activities are carried out are also diverse. They are divided into:

1) by type of goods (markets: consumer goods, factors of production, production assets, securities);

2) by nationality (domestic market, foreign market);

3) on the rights of market participants (free economic zones, free trade zones, offshore zones).

The wide variety of commercial activities determines an adequate variety of legal norms regulating these activities.

At the same time, the commercial activities of enterprises are only an integral part of production and economic activities. And its success depends on the potential of the enterprise. In turn, the potential of an enterprise depends on the results of commercial activities - profit, which is the main source of investment in the development of production. Because of this, a single production and commercial process takes place, the relations of the subjects of which are regulated by economic and commercial law. The boundaries between economic law and commercial law are arbitrary.

Four groups of legal relations between commercial entities and legal norms governing these relations can be distinguished:

1) norms regulating the methods of commercial activities of enterprises and the processes of their organization;

2) rules governing legal relations in commercial activities;

3) norms regulating legal relations with government authorities;

4) rules governing legal relations during the consideration of arbitration disputes.

Types of human activity. Human activity in modern society from the point of view of the method of using its results, it can be divided into two groups: market and non-market activities.

Market activity- is human activity aimed at creating goods and providing services sold on the market.

Non-market activities- This is human activity to create goods and provide services not intended for purchase and sale.

Types of market activities

Commercial organizations are legal entities that pursue profit as the main goal of their activities. Such organizations can be created in the form of business companies and partnerships, production cooperatives, state and municipal unitary enterprises.

Non-profit organizations are legal entities that do not have profit making as the main goal of their activities and do not distribute the profits received among participants. They can be created in the form consumer cooperatives, public or religious organizations(associations) financed by the owners of institutions, charitable and other foundations, as well as organizations of other forms provided for by law.

Thus, market activity according to its purpose is divided into commercial and non-commercial.

Commercial (entrepreneurial) activity - It is a market activity aimed at generating profit or market income.

Non-profit activities - This is a market activity that does not have the goal of making a profit, but the results of which are nevertheless intended for purchase and sale.

commercial activity

Different terminology may be used to refer to commercial activities.

The term " commerce", or "commercial activity", originally meant only trading, merchant market activity, which had as its goal obtaining profit from various types of trade operations carried out by merchants, first between countries (trade with overseas countries), and then within their countries as various kinds of feudal restrictions on trade were lifted.

The term " entrepreneurship", or "", in contrast to commercial activities, previously meant market activities associated with usury, and later - with production one or another mass goods for sale (primarily to the state in connection with its military needs), with construction to order.

Commerce and entrepreneurship as special types of market activities aimed at obtaining were characteristic of pre-capitalist production.

With the development of the capitalist economy, the sectoral source of profit ceased to have any special significance, since any human activity began to be used to increase capital and make profit. Capital conquered production, and then all other types of human activity, destroyed feudal relations, opening up space for the development of market relations not only in breadth, but also in depth.

This is also reflected in the more general term “”. This term began to be understood as any market activity that brings profit to the person who carries out such activity, regardless of what its material (or intangible) result is.

The literal translation from English of the term “business” means, first of all, work, business. However, in a market economy, the greatest importance is only for the kind of business that brings monetary income and profit to the person performing it. Therefore, this term gradually began to be used as a market concept for any objective activity aimed at making a profit.

In the future, the terms “business”, “entrepreneurship”, “commerce” will be used as synonyms, meaning market activities aimed at making a profit.

commercial activity- part of entrepreneurial activity and differs from it only in that it does not cover the process of production of goods itself.

• sale of goods and services;
• activities to supply the enterprise with material resources;
• trade and intermediary activities.

Types of commercial organizations

The Civil Code of the Russian Federation provides for the following possible forms of organizing business activities:

Economic partnership is a commercial organization authorized capital which is divided into shares (contributions) of its participants (founders), who are liable for its obligations with the property belonging to them.

Economical society is a commercial organization whose authorized capital is divided into shares (contributions) of its participants (founders), who are not liable for its obligations with the property they own and risk only their shares (contributions).

Production cooperative (artel) is a commercial organization that unites citizens on a voluntary basis on the basis of membership, personal labor and other participation and making property share contributions.

State (municipal) unitary enterprise is a commercial organization created by the state (municipal governing body) and not endowed with the right of ownership to the property assigned to it by the owner.

Advantages of capital pooling

Three of the above four forms of entrepreneurial activity represent one form or another of combining separate, individual, private capital.

• pooling of capital allows you to quickly increase it, and therefore quickly expand this or that commercial activity;
• distribution of responsibility for the safety and efficient use consolidated capital;
• freeing up time for businessmen for personal life, education, recreation, treatment, etc.;
• combining the experience and knowledge of capital owners, expanding opportunities to attract highly qualified specialists in all areas of activity;
• the owners of the combined capital bear the risk only within the limits of their contributions.

Features of a production cooperative

A production cooperative as a form of organization of entrepreneurial activity may not differ economically from a business partnership or company. It is assumed that members of a production cooperative take personal labor participation in its activities. However, on the one hand, the same can happen in small business partnerships and societies, and on the other hand, the law does not exclude the possibility of membership in a production cooperative legal entities and forms of participation in its work other than labor.

Features of a unitary enterprise

The main difference between a business partnership and a company and a unitary enterprise is that, firstly, the property they have belongs to them by right of ownership, and secondly, by the right of economic ownership or operational management. In practice, between these forms commercial organizations There is usually a second difference, which is that unitary enterprises always have only one owner (the state or municipal government), while business organizations usually have several such owners (although the law allows for the possibility of them also having only one owner).

The difference between a partnership and a society

A business partnership differs from a business company in the form of responsibility of their members, or the amount of risk they bear when participating in a particular business organization. This liability can be full, i.e., include liability for the entire property of a participant in a commercial organization, regardless of the size of his contribution to its authorized capital, or partial, limited, i.e., limited to the size of his share (contribution) to the authorized capital of this organization.

A business partnership is based on a contribution to the authorized capital and full property liability of its members. A business company is based on a contribution to the authorized capital, but the liability of its members is limited only by the size of the contribution itself.

Types of business partnerships

A business partnership can exist in two varieties: general partnership and limited partnership.

General partnership is a business partnership in which all its participants, called “full partners,” are liable for its obligations with the property they own.

Partnership of Faith- this is a business partnership in which not all of its participants are liable for its obligations with the property they own, but there are one or more participants who do not take part in the business activities of the partnership, and therefore bear the risk of losses only within the limits of their contributions.

Any person can be a member of only one general partnership or be a general partner in only one limited partnership.

A participant in a general partnership cannot simultaneously be a general partner in a limited partnership and vice versa.

The organization of any partnership is based on the personal trust relationships of its participants. Without trust, a partnership is impossible, since the risk of its participants is unlimited (except by the size of their personal property).

The classification of commercial organizations is shown in Fig. 3.

Non-market activities

If the result of a person’s or an organization’s activity as a whole is not intended for sale on the market, then it is not sold and does not bring profit; accordingly, its initial goal is neither its receipt nor the sale of the product of labor itself - therefore such activity is called non-market activity.

In practice, under certain circumstances, the results of non-market activities may enter the market and circulate on it as ordinary goods and bring some income in relation to the costs of the person who released them to the market, or there may be a process of transforming non-market activities into market ones, as, for example, some social services, previously provided to members of society in a non-market way (without any payment on their part), become paid services. Accordingly, reverse transformations of market activity into non-market activity may also occur.

Non-profit activities

If the result of the activity of a person or organization as a whole is sold on the market, but is not aimed at making a profit, then such activity is called non-commercial activity and does not relate to business, commerce or entrepreneurship.

Non-profit activity formally occupies an intermediate position between market and non-market activities. In fact, non-profit activity is a special type of commercial activity. Its essence lies not in the absence of income, profit, i.e., the excess of revenue over costs, but in the special procedure for their use established by the legislation of a particular country.

• the profit received as a result is not the purpose of the activities of the relevant organization;
• the profit received is not distributed among the participants of such an organization.

In other words, what is common between commercial and non-commercial activities is that the result of both can be the receipt of profit, and the difference comes down to how this profit is used in the future: whether it is distributed directly between its creators and organizers or spent on statutory purposes.

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