5. A 20-year-old woman applied for medical genetic consultation. Her sister is sick with a severe form of sickle cell anemia, the patient did not have any blood diseases, her husband is healthy. The woman is interested in what the risk of developing this disease is in her planned child. When examining the blood of the spouses for hemoglobin types, the following results were obtained: in the man, HbA 98%, HbS 1%; the woman has HbA 70%, HbS 29%.
What is the answer to the woman's question? Was there cause for concern? Is prevention possible when planning a specific child? Is the disease related to the gender of the child?
6. What blood types are impossible in children from parents with the following blood groups according to the AB0 system: I (0) and III (B)? III(B) and IV(AB)? IV(AB) and IV(AB)? II(A) and III(B)? What is the significance of the established blood type of the first child at the birth of a second child?
7. A pregnant woman applied for a medical genetic consultation and reported that her sister had phenylketonuria, but she herself denied hereditary diseases. My husband is healthy. In his family there were marriages between close relatives, but there were no cases of phenylketonuria.
What is the likelihood of phenylketonuria in a child? Does the likely gender of the child matter? Is it possible to treat this disease after it appears?

Chapter 4
CELL PATHOLOGY

The cell is the structural and functional unit of all living organisms. The cell contains a unique property of living things - the ability to reproduce, mutate and respond to changes. environment. A eukaryotic cell consists of three main components: plasma membrane, nucleus, and cytoplasm. Main function cell is the exchange of matter, energy and information with the environment, which is ultimately subordinated to the task of preserving the cell as a whole when the conditions of existence change (Fig. 4.1 on p. 52).
Cell organelles, having certain morphological characteristics, provide the main manifestations of cell life. Associated with them are respiration and energy reserves (mitochondria), protein synthesis (ribosomes, rough endoplasmic reticulum), accumulation and transport of lipids and glycogen, neutralization of toxins (smooth endoplasmic reticulum), synthesis of products and their release from the cell (Golgi complex), intracellular digestion and protective function (lysosomes). It is important to emphasize that the functions of subcellular organelles are not strictly delineated, so they can participate in different intracellular processes.
All of the above makes knowledge of the basics of cell pathology absolutely necessary for understanding the patterns of development of pathology at the level of tissues, organs and systems, and the disease as a whole - at the level of the human body.

Rice. 4.1. General structure of a eukaryotic cell and its main organelles:
1 – secretory granules (accumulation of secretion products); 2 – centrioles (microtubule polymerization center); 3 – smooth endoplasmic reticulum (detoxification and synthesis of steroids); 4 – lysosomes (intracellular digestion); 5 – mitochondria (synthesis of ATP and steroids); 6 – spherical units (energy conversion); 7 – lipid droplets (accumulation); 8 – nucleolus (rRNA synthesis); 9 – nuclear envelope (separation of chromatin and cytoplasm); 10 – rough endoplasmic reticulum (protein synthesis and segregation, post-translational changes); 11 – Golgi complex (final post-translational changes, packaging and transport)

4.1. CELL DAMAGE: CAUSES AND GENERAL MECHANISMS

Damage is a process manifested by a violation of the structural and functional organization of a living system, caused by various reasons. In the most general sense, damage at any level is a change in structure and function that does not contribute to, but interferes with, the life and existence of an organism in the environment. Damage is the initial moment in the development of pathology, the internal side of the interaction of the causative factor with the body. In this sense, the terms “etiological factor”, “pathogenic factor” and “damaging factor” are synonymous.
Any damage manifests itself at various levels:
molecular (damage to cellular receptors, enzyme molecules, nucleic acids up to their disintegration);
subcellular – ultrastructural (damage to mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, membranes and other ultrastructures up to their destruction);
cellular (various dystrophies due to disruption different types exchange with the possible development of necrosis of the rhexis type or cell lysis);
tissue and organ (dystrophic changes in most cells and stroma with the possible development of necrosis (like infarction, sequestration, etc.);
organismal (a disease with a possible fatal outcome).
Sometimes an additional level of tissue complexes, or histions, is isolated, which includes microvasculature vessels (arterioles, capillaries, venules) and the parenchyma cells they feed, connective tissue and terminal nerve endings. Morphologically, damage can be represented by two pathological processes: dystrophy and necrosis, which are often successive stages (Fig. 4.2).
Causes of cell damage. The involvement of cells in all pathological processes occurring in the body also explains the universality of the causes of cell damage, which correspond in the structure of the classification of etiological factors of the disease in general (Table 4.1).

The cause of cell damage can be a factor of both exogenous and endogenous nature. In relation to the cell, the most important mechanical and physical agents (mechanical trauma, fluctuations in ambient temperature and atmospheric pressure, radiation, electric current, electromagnetic waves); chemical agents (change in pH, decrease in oxygen content, salts of heavy metals, organic solvents, etc.); all kinds of infectious agents; immune reactions, genetic disorders, nutritional imbalance.

Table 4.1
Etiological factors of cell damage

General pathogenesis of cellular damage. From the point of view of the development of processes, in the most general form, cell damage can be manifested by disturbances in cellular metabolism, the development of dystrophy, parabiosis and, finally, necrosis, when the cell dies.
Cell damage can be reversible And irreversible. For example, damage to lysosomes in intestinal epithelial cells under the influence of endotoxin from intestinal microorganisms is reversible. After the intoxication ceases, the lysosomes in the damaged cell are restored. In the case of cell damage by enterovirus, the damage is expressed by degranulation of lysosomes, which can be caused, for example, by any viral infection.
According to its course, damage can be sharp And chronic. The functional manifestations of acute cell damage are divided into predepressive hyperactivity, partial necrosis and total damage (cellular necrosis).
The first and most general nonspecific expression of cell damage under the action of any agent is a violation of the state of unstable equilibrium between the cell and the environment, which is a common characteristic of all living things, regardless of the level of its organization.
Predepressive hyperactivity (according to F.Z. Meyerson) occurs as a result of reversible cell damage by moderate exposure to pathogenic factors. As a result, nonspecific excitation and increased activity of organelles, primarily mitochondria, occur in the cell membrane. This leads to increased oxidation of substrates and ATP synthesis, accompanied by an increase in cell resistance to the pathological factor. If the impact of this factor is limited, damage can be eliminated, followed by restoration of the original structure and function. It is believed that after such an impact, information about the impact that occurred is stored in the genetic apparatus of the cell, so that in the future, with repeated exposure to the same factor, the adaptation of the cell is significantly facilitated.
In the case of partial necrosis, the damaged part of the cell is separated from the functioning part by a newly formed membrane and destroyed by phagocytes. After this, the structure and function of the cell are restored due to hyperplasia of subcellular units.
If the damaging factor has a pronounced intensity and duration of action, then total damage to the cell occurs, which leads to the cessation of mitochondrial function, disruption of cellular transport and all energy-dependent processes. Subsequently, massive destruction of lysosomes occurs, the release of hydrolytic enzymes into the cytoplasm and the melting of other organelles, the nucleus and membranes. The phase of acute cell damage, when there is still a small gradient of ion concentration between the cytoplasm and the extracellular environment, is called cell agony. It is irreversible and ends with cell necrosis, while a sharp increase in permeability and partial destruction of cell membranes facilitate the access of enzymes into the cell from the environment, which continue the destruction of all its structural elements.

Specific and nonspecific in cell damage. Specific damage can be seen when analyzing any type of damage. For example, with mechanical trauma, this is a violation of the integrity of the tissue structure, with autoimmune hemolytic anemia, a change in the properties of the erythrocyte membrane under the influence of hemolysin and complement, with radiation damage, the formation of free radicals with subsequent disruption of oxidative processes.
Nonspecific damage cells, i.e., little dependent on the type of damaging factor, are the following:
disruption of the imbalanced state of the cell and the external environment;
disruption of the structure and function of membranes: permeability and membrane transport, membrane electrical potential, receptor apparatus, cell shape;
disturbance of the metabolism and electrolyte composition of the cell and its individual parts;
disruption of the activity of cell enzyme systems (up to enzymatic destruction of the cell);
reducing the volume and intensity of biological oxidation;
violation of the storage and transmission of genetic information;
decrease in specific function (for specialized cells).
Damage to specific functions necessary for the body as a whole does not directly affect the fate of cells, but determines the essence of changes in organs and systems, and is therefore considered in the course of specific pathology.
Most damage at the subcellular level is nonspecific and does not depend on the type of damaging factors. For example, in the myocardium during acute ischemia, exposure to adrenaline, morphine poisoning, diffuse purulent peritonitis, irradiation, similar changes in damaged cells are observed in the form of swelling of mitochondria and destruction of their membranes, vacuolization of the endoplasmic reticulum, focal destruction of myofibrils and the appearance of an excess amount of lipid inclusions. Such identical changes in structures under the influence of various factors are called stereotypical.
With the same impact on the entire organ of any damaging factor, the entire spectrum of possible cell states usually manifests itself, from practically normal and even intensely functioning to death (necrosis). This phenomenon is called mosaic. For example, when the chickenpox virus acts on skin cells, necrosis develops in the form of small foci, forming a characteristic rash in the form of bubbles (vesicles).
Damage at the cellular level can sometimes be specific. Specific changes are caused by intracellular replication of the virus (with the appearance in the nucleus or cytoplasm of inclusions, which are either accumulations of viral particles, or reactive changes in the cellular substance in response to their replication), tumor metamorphosis and congenital or acquired enzymopathies, leading to the accumulation of normal metabolites in the cell in excessive quantities or abnormal in the form of inclusions.

4.2. PATHOLOGY OF CELL MEMBRANES

The main structural part of the membrane is a lipid bilayer, consisting of phospholipids and cholesterol with molecules of various proteins included in it. The outside of the cell membrane is covered with a layer of glycoproteins. The functions of the cell membrane include selective permeability, reactions of intercellular interactions, absorption and release of specific substances (reception and secretion). The plasma membrane is the site of application of physical, chemical, mechanical stimuli from the external environment and informational signals from the internal environment of the body. Information function is provided by membrane receptors, protective - by the membrane itself, contact - by cell junctions (Fig. 4.3).
The ability to form membranes is crucial in the formation of a cell and its subcellular organelles. Any violation is accompanied by a change in the permeability of cell membranes and the state of the cytoplasm of the damaged cell. Damage to cell membranes can be caused by the destruction of their lipid or protein (enzyme and receptor) components.
Cell pathology can be caused by disturbances in the following membrane functions: membrane transport, membrane permeability, cell communication and “recognition”, membrane mobility and cell shape, membrane synthesis and exchange (Scheme 4.1).

Scheme 4.1. General mechanisms of damage to cell membranes [Litvitsky P. F., 1995]

4.3. PATHOLOGY OF THE CELL NUCLEUS

The nucleus ensures coordination of cell work during interphase, storage of genetic information, and transfer of genetic material during cell division. DNA replication and RNA transcription occur in the nucleus. If damaged, swelling of the nucleus, its wrinkling (pyknosis), rupture and destruction (karyorrhexis and karyolysis) can be observed. Ultramicroscopic examination allows one to distinguish several typical disorders of the nucleus and genetic apparatus of the cell.
1. Changing the structure and size of the kernel depends on the DNA content in it. The normal interphase nucleus contains a diploid (2n) set of chromosomes. If mitosis does not occur after the end of DNA synthesis, polyploidy appears - a multiple increase in the DNA set. Polyploidy can occur in normally functioning cells of the liver, kidneys, and myocardium; it is especially pronounced in tissues during regeneration and tumor growth, and the more malignant the tumor, the more pronounced the heteroploidy. Aneuploidy, a change in the form of an incomplete set of chromosomes, is associated with chromosomal mutations. Its manifestations occur in large numbers in malignant tumors.
The DNA substance in the nucleus is distributed unevenly. In the outer parts of the nuclei one finds condensed chromatin (heterochromatin), which is considered inactive, and in the remaining parts there is non-condensed chromatin (euchromatin), which is active. Chromatin condensation in the nucleus is considered a sign of metabolic depression and a harbinger of cell death. Pathological changes in the nucleus also include its toxic swelling. A decrease in the size of the nucleus is characteristic of a decrease in metabolism in the cell and accompanies its atrophy.
2. Changing the shape of the core can be caused by cytoplasmic inclusions (signet ring cells in mucus-forming cancer, obese hepatocytes), the formation of multiple protrusions of the nucleus into the cytoplasm due to increased synthetic activity of the nucleus (nuclear polymorphism during inflammation, tumor growth). As an extreme option, inclusions (cytoplasmic or viral) may occur in the nucleus.
3. Changing the number of cores manifests itself as multinucleation in giant cells during inflammation (Pirogov-Langhans cells in tuberculosis), tumors (Sternberg-Berezovsky cells in lymphogranulomatosis). Anucleation can be observed in normal cells (erythrocytes, platelets), in viable fragments of tumor cells and as evidence of cell death (karyolysis).
4. Changes in the structure and size of nucleoli consists in their increase and increase in density (corresponds to an increase in functional activity) or disorganization (occurs with energy deficiency in the cell and is accompanied by the pathology of mitoses).
5. Change in the nuclear envelope (double membrane) consists of disruptions in its connection with the endoplasmic reticulum, protrusion and curvature of both membranes, changes in the number and size of pores, and the appearance of inclusions in the intermembrane space. These changes indicate the involvement of the nucleus in cell damage and are characteristic of intoxication, viral infections, radiation damage, and tumor degeneration of the cell.
6. Processes of cell division (mitosis) may be disrupted under various influences, and any of its links may suffer. The most famous classification of mitotic pathology proposed by I.A. Alov (1972):
Type I– chromosome damage (delayed division in prophase);
Type II– damage to the mitotic apparatus (delay in metaphase);
III type– violation of cytotomy (delay in telophase).
It can be considered established that the delay in the entry of cells into mitosis occurs mainly due to a violation of their metabolism, in particular the synthesis of nucleic acids and proteins, and chromosome disruption during cell reproduction, detected under pathological conditions, is due to DNA strand breakage and disruption of DNA chromosome reproduction .
The characteristics of a cell's response to a damaging factor depend both on its characteristics and on the type of cell in terms of its ability to divide, which provides the possibility of recompensation. It is believed that in the body there are three categories of specialized cells based on their ability to divide.
Category I cells From the very birth of the organism, a highly specialized state of structures is achieved by minimizing functions. The body does not have a source of renewal of these cells in the event of their dysfunction. These cells include neurons. Cells of category I are capable of intracellular regeneration, as a result of which lost parts of cells are restored if the nuclear apparatus and trophic supply are preserved.
Category II cells- these are highly specialized cells that perform specific functions and then either “wear out” or are peeled off from various surfaces, sometimes very quickly. Like category I cells, they are not able to reproduce, but the body has a mechanism for their continuous reproduction. Such cell populations are called renewing, and the state in which they are located is called stationary. These cells include, for example, the cells that line most of the intestines.

Disturbances in the functioning of the human body under various extreme conditions and diseases are always, in one way or another, associated with changes in the functioning of cells. A cell is a structural and functional unit of tissues and organs. The processes that underlie the energetic and plastic support of tissue structures and functions take place in it. Under the influence of unfavorable environmental factors, disruption of cell functioning can become persistent and be caused by their damage. Pathology always begins with damage, when adaptive capabilities become untenable. Any pathological process occurs with a greater or lesser degree and scale of cell damage, which is expressed in a certain disruption of their structure and functions. Based on this, cell damage is understood as such changes in its structure, metabolism, physicochemical properties and functions that lead to disruption of its vital functions and which persist after removal of the damaging agent. However, taking into account that the body, as a system, is a collection of elements and connections between them, the nature of the disease must be considered from two perspectives - structural-metabolic and informational, since it is associated both with damage to the cells themselves, their executive cellular apparatus, and and with violation information processes- signaling, reception and intercellular connections, i.e. with dysregulation, and according to the terminology of G.N. Kryzhanovsky with dysregulatory pathology. At the same time, despite the diversity of pathogenic factors acting on cells, they respond with fundamentally the same type of reactions, which are based on tissue mechanisms of cellular alteration. Thus, damage should be considered as a typical pathological process, the basis of which is a violation of intracellular homeostasis, the structure of the cell’s integrity, as well as its functional ability.

Moving on to specific aspects of the pathophysiology of damage, based on the teachings of the founder of cellular pathology R. Virchow, taking into account the “priority of damage to elements over communication disorder,” we will first consider typical violations intracellular homeostasis, pathochemical and pathophysiological aspects of cell damage and its executive apparatus.

Causes of cell dysfunction and damage

The immediate cause of cell dysfunction is changes in its environment, while cell damage is caused by the action of damaging agents on it. Cell damage, the essence of which is disturbances of intracellular homeostasis, can be the result of direct (direct) or indirect, due to disruption of intercellular interaction, constancy of the internal environment of the body itself (hypoxia, acidosis, alkalosis, hypoglycemia, hyperkalemia, increased content of metabolic end products in the body), exposure to many pathogenic factors, which are divided into three main groups: physical, chemical and biological.

Among physical factors, the most common causes of cell damage are the following:

Mechanical influences: they cause disruption of the structure of the plasmalemma and membranes of subcellular formations;

Temperature factor: increased temperature of the environment in which the cell is located, up to 45-50°C or more, can lead to denaturation of proteins, nucleic acids, decomposition of lipoprotein complexes, increased permeability of cell membranes and other changes. A significant decrease in temperature can cause a significant slowdown or irreversible cessation of metabolic processes in the cell, crystallization of intracellular fluid and rupture of membranes;

Changes in osmotic pressure in the cell: the accumulation in it of products of incomplete oxidation of organic substrates, as well as excess ions, is accompanied by the flow of liquid into the cell along the osmotic pressure gradient, its swelling and stretching (up to rupture) of its plasmalemma and organelle membranes. A decrease in intracellular osmotic pressure or an increase in it in the extracellular environment leads to the loss of fluid by the cell, its wrinkling (pyknosis) and often to death;

Exposure to ionizing radiation, which causes the formation of free radicals and activation of peroxide free radical processes, the products of which damage membranes and denature cell enzymes;

Gravitational, electromagnetic factors.

Cell damage is often caused by chemical factors. These include a variety of substances of exogenous and endogenous origin: acids, alkalis, salts of heavy metals, poisons of plant and animal origin, products of impaired metabolism. Thus, cyanides inhibit the activity of cytochrome oxidase. Ethanol and its metabolites inhibit many cellular enzymes. Substances containing arsenic salts inhibit pyruvate oxidase. Incorrect use medicines can also cause cell damage. For example, an overdose of strophanthin causes a significant suppression of the activity of K + - Na + -ATPase of the sarcolemma of myocardial cells, which leads to an imbalance in the intracellular content of ions and fluid.

It is important that cell damage can be caused by both excess and deficiency of the same factor. For example, excess oxygen in tissues activates the process of lipid peroxidation (LPO), the products of which damage enzymes and cell membranes. On the other hand, a decrease in oxygen content causes a disruption of oxidative processes, a decrease in the formation of ATP and, as a consequence, a breakdown in cell functions.

Cell damage is often caused by factors of immune and allergic processes. They can be caused, in particular, by the similarity of antigens, for example, between microbes and body cells.

Damage may also result from the formation of antibodies or the influence of T lymphocytes acting against unchanged body cells due to a mutation in the genome of B or T lymphocytes of the immune system.

An important role in maintaining metabolic processes in the cell is played by substances entering it from the endings of neurons, in particular, neurotransmitters, trophogens, and neuropeptides. The reduction or cessation of their transport causes metabolic disorders in cells, disruption of their vital functions and the development of pathological conditions called neurodystrophies.

Except the above factors, cell damage is often caused by significantly increased function of organs and tissues. For example, with prolonged excessive physical activity, heart failure may develop as a result of disruption of the functioning of cardiomyocytes.

Cell damage can be the result of not only pathogenic factors, but also a consequence of genetically programmed processes. An example is the death of the epidermis, intestinal epithelium, red blood cells and other cells as a result of their aging process. The mechanisms of cell aging and death include gradual irreversible changes in the structure of membranes, enzymes, nucleic acids, depletion of substrates for metabolic reactions, and a decrease in cell resistance to pathogenic influences.

Based on their origin, all causative factors of cell damage are divided into: exogenous and endogenous; infectious and non-infectious origin.

Common mechanisms of cell damage

Depending on the speed of development and severity of the main manifestations, cell damage can be acute or chronic. Depending on the degree of disruption of intracellular homeostasis, the damage can be reversible or irreversible.

There are two pathogenetic variants of cell damage.

Violent option. It develops when an initially healthy cell is exposed to physical, chemical and biological factors, the intensity of which exceeds the usual disturbing influences to which the cell is adapted. The most sensitive to this type of damage are functionally low-active cells that have low power of their own homeostatic mechanisms.

Cytopathic variant. It occurs as a result of a primary violation of the protective-compensatory homeostatic mechanisms of the cell. In this case, the factor that triggers the pathogenetic mechanisms of damage are disturbing stimuli natural to the cell, which under these conditions become damaging. The cytopathic variant includes all types of cell damage due to the absence of any necessary components (hypoxic, during starvation, hypovitaminosis, neurotrophic, with antioxidant deficiency, with genetic defects, etc.). The most sensitive to cytopathic damage are those cells whose intensity of disturbances, and, consequently, whose functional activity in natural conditions is very high (neurons, myocardiocytes).

At the cellular level, damaging factors “turn on” several pathogenetic links. These include:

Disorder of the processes of energy supply to cells;

Damage to membranes and enzyme systems;

Imbalance of ions and liquid;

Violation of the genetic program and/or its implementation;

Disorder of the mechanisms regulating cell function.

Violation of energy supply processes occurring in cells is often the initial and leading mechanism of their alteration. Energy supply can be disrupted at the stages of ATP synthesis, its delivery and use.

Disruption of energy supply processes, in turn, can become one of the factors of dysfunction of the membrane apparatus of cells, their enzyme systems (ATPase actomyosin, K + - Na + - dependent ATPase of the plasmalemma, Mg 2+ -dependent ATPase of the “calcium pump” of the sarcoplasmic reticulum etc.), ion and fluid balance, decrease in membrane potential, as well as cell regulation mechanisms.

Damage to membranes and enzymes plays a significant role in the disruption of cell functioning, as well as the transition of reversible changes in it to irreversible ones. This is due to the fact that the basic properties of a cell largely depend on the state of its membranes and the enzymes associated with them.

One of the most important mechanisms of damage to membranes and enzymes is the intensification of peroxidation of their components. Formed in large quantities oxygen radicals (superoxide and hydroxyl radical) and lipids cause: 1) changes in the physicochemical properties of membrane lipids, which causes a violation of the conformation of their lipoprotein complexes and, in connection with this, a decrease in the activity of proteins and enzyme systems that provide the reception of humoral effects, transmembrane transport of ions and molecules, structural integrity of membranes; 2) changes in the physicochemical properties of protein micelles that perform structural and enzymatic functions in the cell; 3) the formation of structural defects in the membrane - the so-called. the simplest channels (clusters) due to the introduction of LPO products into them. These processes, in turn, cause disruption of processes important for the life of cells - excitability, generation and conduction of nerve impulses, metabolism, perception and implementation of regulatory influences, intercellular interaction, etc.

Normally, the composition and state of membranes is modified not only by free radical and lipid peroxide processes, but also by membrane-bound, free (solubilized) and lysosomal enzymes: lipases, phospholipases, proteases. Under the influence of pathogenic factors, their activity or content in the hyaloplasm of the cell may increase (in particular, due to the development of acidosis, which increases the release of enzymes from lysosomes and their subsequent activation, the penetration of calcium ions into the cell). In this regard, glycerophospholipids and membrane proteins, as well as cell enzymes, undergo intensive hydrolysis. This is accompanied by a significant increase in membrane permeability and a decrease in the kinetic properties of enzymes.

As a result of the action of hydrolases (mainly lipases and phospholipases), free fatty acids and lysophospholipids accumulate in the cell, in particular glycerophospholipids: phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidyl-ethanolamine, phosphatidylserine. They are called amphiphilic compounds due to their ability to penetrate and fix in both hydrophobic and hydrophilic environments of cell membranes (amphi means “both”, “two”). The accumulation of amphiphiles in large quantities in membranes, which, like an excess of lipid hydroperoxides, leads to the formation of clusters and microfractures in them. Damage to cell membranes and enzymes is one of the main causes of significant disruption of cell functioning and often leads to their death.

Imbalance of ions and fluid in the cell. As a rule, a violation of transmembrane distribution, as well as the intracellular content and ratio of various ions, develops after or simultaneously with disorders of energy supply and is combined with signs of damage to cell membranes and enzymes. As a result, the membrane permeability for many ions changes significantly. This applies to the greatest extent to potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium, chlorine, that is, ions that take part in such vital processes as excitation, its conduction, electromechanical coupling, etc.

The consequence of an imbalance of ions is a change in the resting and action membrane potential, as well as a disruption in the conduction of the excitation impulse. These changes are important because they are often one of the important signs of the presence and nature of cell damage. An example is changes in the electrocardiogram when myocardial cells are damaged, and electroencephalogram when the structure and functions of brain neurons are disrupted.

Disturbances in the intracellular ion content cause changes in cell volume due to fluid imbalance. This can be manifested by cell hyperhydration. For example, an increase in the content of sodium and calcium ions in damaged cells is accompanied by an increase in osmotic pressure in them. As a result, water accumulates in the cells. At the same time, the cells swell, their volume increases, which is accompanied by an increase in stretching, often micro-tears of the cytolemma and organelle membranes. On the contrary, cell dehydration (for example, in some infectious diseases that cause water loss) is characterized by the release of fluid and proteins dissolved in it (including enzymes), as well as other organic and inorganic water-soluble compounds. Intracellular dehydration is often combined with nuclear shrinkage, breakdown of mitochondria and other organelles.

One of the significant mechanisms of cell dysfunction is damage to the genetic program and/or mechanisms for its implementation. The main processes leading to changes in the genetic information of a cell are mutations, derepression of pathogenic genes (for example, oncogenes), suppression of the activity of vital genes (for example, regulating the synthesis of enzymes) or the introduction of a fragment of foreign DNA into the genome (for example, the DNA of an oncogenic virus, an abnormal region DNA of another cell). In addition to changes in the genetic program, an important mechanism of cell dysfunction is violation of the implementation of this program mainly during the process of cell division during mitosis or meiosis.

An important mechanism of cell damage is disorder of regulation of intracellular processes. This may be the result of disturbances developing at one or more levels of regulatory mechanisms:

At the level of interaction of biologically active substances (hormones, neurotransmitters, etc.) with cell receptors;

At the cellular level, so-called. “second messengers” (messengers) of nervous influences: cyclic nucleotides - adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) and guanosine monophosphate (cGMP), formed in response to the action of “first messengers” - hormones and neurotransmitters. An example is the disruption of the formation of membrane potential in cardiomyocytes due to the accumulation of cAMP in them, which is, in particular, one of the possible causes of the development of cardiac arrhythmias;

At the level of metabolic reactions regulated by cyclic nucleotides or other intracellular factors. Thus, disruption of the process of activation of cellular enzymes can significantly change the intensity of metabolic reactions and, as a result, lead to disruption of cell functioning.

Having considered the pathochemical aspects of cell damage, it is necessary not to forget that the problem of cellular damage also has another, very important side - the informational aspect of the problem of cell damage. Communication between cells, the signals they exchange can also be sources of disease.

In most cases, cells in the body are controlled by chemical regulatory signals, namely hormones, mediators, antibodies, substrates, and ions. The lack or absence of a particular signal, as well as an excess, can prevent the inclusion of certain adaptive programs or contribute to their excessively intense, and possibly abnormally long functioning, which leads to certain pathological consequences. A special case is the fairly common situation when a cell mistakenly mistakes one signal for another - the so-called mimicry of bioregulators, leading to serious regulatory disorders. Examples of diseases caused by signaling pathology include: parkinsonism, kwashiorkor, insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (pathology caused by signal deficiency), von Basedow's disease, Cushing's syndrome, obesity (pathology caused by signal excess). The pathogenicity of excess substrates is especially clearly visible in the example of obesity.

In some cases, even with adequate signaling, the cell is not able to respond properly if it is “blind and deaf” in relation to this signal. This is precisely the situation that is created in the absence or deficiency of receptors corresponding to any bioregulator. In particular, an example of such a pathology is familial hereditary hypercholesterolemia, the pathogenesis of which is associated with a defect in the receptor protein responsible for the recognition by cells of the vascular wall and some other tissues and organs of the protein component of low and very low density lipoproteins - apoprotein B, as well as the insulin-resistant form of sugar diabetes

However, even with adequate signaling and correct recognition of signals by cellular receptors, cells are not able to implement proper adaptation programs if there is no transfer of information from surface membrane receptors into the cell. According to modern concepts, the mechanisms that mediate intracellular signal transmission to the cell genome are diverse. Of particular importance are the pathways of post-receptor signaling in the cell through the G-protein system (guanosine triphosphate-binding proteins). These transmitter proteins occupy a key position in the exchange of information between receptors located on the surface of cell membranes and the intracellular regulatory apparatus, because they are able to integrate signals perceived by several different receptors, and in response to a specific receptor-mediated signal can include many different effector programs, bringing into play a network of various intracellular modulators, mediators, such as cAMP and cGMP.

Inadequate use by a cell of its adaptive capabilities in a number of hereditary and acquired diseases can be the result of malfunctions not only of post-receptor information mechanisms, but also a defect in genetic programs and/or mechanisms for their implementation (as a result of damage by DNA mutations, the occurrence of chromosomal abnormalities). Because of this, they are either not implemented or produce an inadequate or inappropriate result for the situation.

Main manifestations of cell damage

Dystrophies. Dystrophies (dys - disorder, disorder, trophe - nutrition) are understood as metabolic disorders in cells and tissues, accompanied by disorders of their functions, plastic manifestations, as well as structural changes leading to disruption of their vital functions.

The main mechanisms of dystrophies are:

Synthesis of abnormal substances in the cell, for example, the amyloid protein-polysaccharide complex;

Excessive transformation of some compounds into others, for example, fats and carbohydrates into proteins, carbohydrates into fats;

Decomposition (phanerosis), for example, of protein-lipid membrane complexes;

Infiltration of cells and intercellular substance with organic and inorganic compounds, for example, cholesterol and its esters of arterial walls in atherosclerosis.

The main cellular dystrophies include protein (dysproteinoses), fatty (lipidoses), carbohydrate and mineral.

Dysplasia(dys - disorder, disorder, plaseo-form) are a disruption of the process of cell development, manifested by a persistent change in their structure and function, which leads to a disorder in their vital functions.

The cause of dysplasia is damage to the cell genome. This is what causes changes that are persistent and, as a rule, inherited from cell to cell, in contrast to dystrophies, which are often temporary, reversible and can be eliminated when the action of the causative factor ceases.

The main mechanism of dysplasia is a disorder of the differentiation process, which consists in the formation of structural and functional specialization of the cell. Structural signs of dysplasia are changes in the size and shape of cells, their nuclei and other organelles, the number and structure of chromosomes. As a rule, cells are enlarged in size, have an irregular, bizarre shape (“monster cells”), and the ratio of various organelles in them is disproportionate. Often, various inclusions and signs of degenerative processes are found in such cells. Examples of cell dysplasia include the formation of megaloblasts in the bone marrow in pernicious anemia, sickle-shaped erythrocytes in hemoglobin pathology, and multinucleated giant cells with a bizarre arrangement of chromatin in Recklinghausen neurofibromatosis. Cellular dysplasia is one of the manifestations of atypia of tumor cells.

Changes in the structure and functions of cellular organelles upon cell damage. Cell damage is characterized by greater or lesser disruption of the structure and function of all its components. However, under the influence of various pathogenic factors, signs of damage to certain organelles may predominate.

Under the influence of pathogenic factors, there is a decrease in the number of mitochondria in relation to the total mass of the cell. Changes in individual mitochondria that are stereotypical for the action of most damaging factors are a decrease or increase in their size and shape. Many pathogenic effects on the cell (hypoxia, endo- and exogenous toxic agents, including medications in case of their overdose, ionizing radiation, changes in osmotic pressure) are accompanied by swelling and vacuolization of mitochondria, which can lead to rupture of their membrane, fragmentation and homogenization of cristae. Violation of the structure of mitochondria leads to a significant suppression of the process of respiration in them and the formation of ATP, as well as to an imbalance of ions inside the cell.

Under pathogenic influences, the release and activation of lysosome enzymes can lead to “self-digestion” (autolysis) of the cell.

Under the influence of damaging factors, destruction of groups of ribosomal subunits (polysomes), a decrease in the number of ribosomes, and separation of organelles from intracellular membranes are observed. These changes are accompanied by a decrease in the intensity of the protein synthesis process in the cell.

Damage to the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus is accompanied by expansion of the reticulum tubules, up to the formation of large vacuoles and cisterns due to the accumulation of fluid in them. There is focal destruction of the membranes of the network tubules and their fragmentation.

Damage to the nucleus is combined with a change in its shape, condensation of chromatin along the periphery of the nucleus (chromatin margination), disruption of double-circuiting or rupture of the nuclear envelope.

The effect of damaging factors on the cell can cause a decrease or increase in the fluid content in the cytoplasm, proteolysis or coagulation of protein, and the formation of “inclusions” that are not found normally. A change in the state of the cytoplasm, in turn, significantly affects the metabolic processes occurring in it, due to the fact that many enzymes (for example, glycolysis) are located in the cell matrix, the function of organelles, and the processes of perception of regulatory and other influences on the cell.

Necrosis and autolysis. Necrosis (gr. necros - dead) is the death of cells and tissues, accompanied by the irreversible cessation of their vital functions. Necrosis is often the final stage of dystrophy, dysplasia, and also a consequence of the direct action of damaging factors of significant force. The changes that precede necrosis are called necrobiosis or pathobiosis. According to I.V. Davydovsky necrobiosis is the process of cell death. Examples of pathobiosis include processes of tissue necrosis in neurotrophic disorders as a result of tissue denervation due to prolonged venous hyperemia or ischemia. Necrobiotic processes also occur normally, being the final stage of the life cycle of many cells. Most dead cells undergo autolysis, i.e. self-destruction of structures. The main mechanism of autolysis is the hydrolysis of cell components and intercellular substance under the influence of lysosome enzymes. This is facilitated by the development of acidosis in damaged cells.

Other cells - phagocytes, as well as microorganisms - can also take part in the process of lysis of damaged cells. In contrast to the autolytic mechanism, the latter is called heterolytic. Thus, the lysis of necrotic cells (necrolysis) can be achieved by auto- and heterolytic processes, in which enzymes and other factors of both dead cells and living cells in contact with them take part.

Specific and nonspecific changes in cell damage. Any damage to a cell causes a complex of specific and nonspecific changes in it.

Under specific understand changes in the properties of cells that are characteristic of a given factor when it acts on various cells, or that are characteristic only this species cells when exposed to damaging agents of various types. Thus, the effect of mechanical factors on any cell is accompanied by a violation of the integrity of its membranes. Under the influence of uncouplers of the process of oxidation and phosphorylation, the coupling of these processes is reduced or blocked. A high concentration in the blood of one of the hormones of the adrenal cortex, aldosterone, causes the accumulation of excess sodium ions in various cells. On the other hand, the effect of damaging agents on certain types of cells causes changes specific to them. For example, the influence of various pathogenic factors on muscle cells is accompanied by the development of myofibril contracture, on neurons - by the formation of the so-called damage potential, on red blood cells - by hemolysis and the release of hemoglobin from them.

Damage is always accompanied by a complex and nonspecific, stereotypical changes in cells. They are observed in various types of cells under the influence of various agents. Common nonspecific manifestations of cell alterations include acidosis, excessive activation of free radical and peroxide reactions, denaturation of protein molecules, increased permeability of cell membranes, and increased sorption properties of cells.

Identification of a complex of specific and nonspecific changes in the cells of organs and tissues makes it possible to judge the nature and strength of the action of the pathogenic factor, the degree of damage, as well as the effectiveness of medicinal and non-medicinal agents used for treatment.

Damage compensation mechanisms

The effect of pathogenic factors on a cell and the development of damage is accompanied by activation or inclusion of reactions aimed at eliminating or reducing the degree of damage and its consequences. The complex of these reactions ensures the cell’s adaptation to the changed conditions of its life. The main adaptive mechanisms include reactions of compensation, restoration and replacement of lost or damaged structures and impaired functions, protection of cells from the action of pathogenic agents, as well as a regulatory decrease in their functional activity. The entire complex of such reactions can be divided into two groups: intracellular and extracellular (intercellular).

The main intracellular mechanisms of compensation for damage include the following.

Compensation for disturbances in the process of energy supply to cells. One of the ways to compensate for disturbances in energy metabolism due to damage to mitochondria is to intensify the process of glycolysis. A certain contribution to the compensation of disturbances in the energy supply of intracellular processes during damage is made by the activation of transport enzymes and the utilization of ATP energy (adenine nucleotide transferase, creatine phosphokinase, ATPase), as well as a decrease in the functional activity of the cell. The latter helps reduce ATP consumption.

Protecting cell membranes and enzymes. One of the mechanisms for protecting cell membranes and enzymes is the limitation of free radical reactions and lipid peroxidation processes by antioxidant defense enzymes (superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione peroxidase). Another mechanism for protecting membranes and enzymes from damaging effects, in particular lysosome enzymes, may be the activation of cell buffer systems. This causes a decrease in the degree of intracellular acidosis and, as a consequence, excessive hydrolytic activity of lysosomal enzymes. An important role in protecting cell membranes and enzymes from damage is played by microsomal enzymes, which ensure the physicochemical transformation of pathogenic agents through their oxidation, reduction, demethylation, etc.

Compensation for ion and liquid imbalance. Compensation for the imbalance of ion content in the cell can be achieved by activating the energy supply mechanisms of ion “pumps”, as well as protecting membranes and enzymes involved in ion transport. The action of buffer systems plays a certain role in reducing the degree of ion imbalance. Activation of intracellular buffer systems (carbonate, phosphate, protein) can help restore optimal ratios of K + , Na + and Ca ++ ions. A decrease in the degree of ion imbalance, in turn, may be accompanied by a normalization of intracellular fluid content.

Elimination of violations in the genetic program of cells. Damage to a section of DNA can be detected and repaired with the participation of DNA repair enzymes. These enzymes detect and remove the altered section of DNA (endonucleases and restriction enzymes), synthesize a normal nucleic acid fragment to replace the deleted one (DNA polymerases), and insert this newly synthesized fragment in place of the deleted one (ligases). In addition to these complex enzyme systems for DNA repair, the cell contains enzymes that eliminate “small-scale” biochemical changes in the genome. These include demethylases, which remove methyl groups, and ligases, which eliminate breaks in DNA chains caused by ionizing radiation or free radicals.

Compensation for disorders of intracellular metabolic processes caused by impaired regulatory functions of cells. This includes: a change in the number of receptors for hormones, neurotransmitters and other physiologically active substances on the cell surface, as well as the sensitivity of the receptors to these substances. The number of receptors can change due to the fact that their molecules are able to sink into the membrane or cytoplasm of the cell and rise to its surface. The nature and severity of the response to them largely depends on the number and sensitivity of receptors that perceive regulatory stimuli.

Excess or deficiency of hormones and neurotransmitters or their effects can also be compensated at the level of second messengers - cyclic nucleotides. It is known that the ratio of cAMP and cGMP changes not only as a result of the action of extracellular regulatory stimuli, but also intracellular factors, in particular, phosphodiesterases and calcium ions. Violation of the implementation of regulatory influences on the cell can also be compensated at the level of intracellular metabolic processes, since many of them occur on the basis of regulation of the metabolic rate by the amount of the enzyme reaction product (the principle of positive or negative feedback).

Decreased functional activity of cells. As a result of a decrease in the functional activity of cells, a decrease in the consumption of energy and substrates necessary for the implementation of plastic processes is ensured. As a result, the degree and scale of cell damage due to the action of the pathogenic factor are significantly reduced, and after the cessation of its action, a more intense and complete restoration of cellular structures and their functions is observed. The main mechanisms that provide a temporary decrease in cell function include a decrease in efferent impulses from nerve centers, a decrease in the number or sensitivity of receptors on the cell surface, and intracellular regulatory suppression of metabolic reactions.

Adaptation of cells under conditions of damage occurs not only at the metabolic and functional levels. Long-term repeated or significant damage causes significant structural changes in the cell, which have adaptive significance. They are achieved through the processes of regeneration, hypertrophy, hyperplasia, hypotrophy (see section “Structural basis of compensation”).

Regeneration(regeneratio - revival; restoration) means the replacement of cells and/or its individual structural elements in replacement of those that are dead, damaged or have completed their life cycle. Regeneration of structures is accompanied by restoration of their functions. There are so-called cellular and intracellular forms of regeneration. The first is characterized by cell reproduction through mitosis or amitosis. Intracellular regeneration is manifested by the restoration of organelles - mitochondria, nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum and others instead
damaged or dead.

Hypertrophy(hyper - excessively, increase; trophe - nourish) is an increase in the volume and mass of structural elements, in particular cells. Hypertrophy of intact cell organelles compensates for the disruption or insufficiency of the functions of its damaged elements.

Hyperplasia(hyper - excessively; plaseo - form) is characterized by an increase in the number of structural elements, in particular, organelles in the cell. Often in the same cell signs of both hyperplasia and hypertrophy are observed. Both processes provide not only compensation for the structural defect, but also the possibility of increased cell functioning.

Intercellular (extracellular) mechanisms of interaction and adaptation of cells when they are damaged. Within tissues and organs, cells are not separated. They interact with each other by exchanging metabolites, physiologically active substances, and ions. In turn, the interaction of tissue cells and organs in the body as a whole is ensured by the functioning of the lymph and blood circulation systems, endocrine, nervous and immune influences.

A characteristic feature of intercellular (extracellular) adaptation mechanisms is that they are implemented mainly with the participation of cells that were not directly exposed to a pathogenic factor (for example, hyperfunction of cardiomyocytes outside the necrosis zone during myocardial infarction).

Based on the level and scale, such reactions in case of cell damage can be divided into organ-tissue, intrasystem, and intersystem. An example of an adaptive reaction at the organ-tissue level is the activation of the function of undamaged liver or kidney cells when the cells of a part of the organ are damaged. This reduces the load on cells exposed to pathogenic effects and helps reduce the degree of their damage. Intrasystemic reactions include constriction of arterioles when the work of the heart decreases (for example, during myocardial infarction), which ensures and prevents (or reduces the degree of) damage to their cells.

The involvement of several physiological systems in adaptive reactions is observed, for example, during general hypoxia. At the same time, the work of the respiratory, circulatory, blood and tissue metabolism systems is activated, which reduces the lack of oxygen and metabolic substrates in tissues, increases their utilization and thereby reduces the degree of damage to their cells (see section “Hypoxia”).

Activation of intracellular and intercellular adaptation mechanisms during damage, as a rule, prevents cell death, ensures their functions and helps eliminate the consequences of the pathogenic factor. In this case, we talk about reversible changes in cells. If the strength of the pathogenic agent is great and/or the protective and adaptive ones are insufficient, irreversible damage to the cells develops and they die.

Management functions

An important step in planning is choosing goals. The goals of the organization are the results that the organization seeks to achieve and towards which its activities are aimed.

The main target function or mission of the organization is identified, which determines the main directions of the company’s activities.

Mission is the main main goal of the organization for which it was created.

When determining the mission of the organization, it is necessary to take into account:

• - a statement of the organization’s mission in terms of its production of goods or services, as well as the main markets and key technologies used in the organization;
• - the position of the company in relation to the external environment;
• - organizational culture: what kind of working climate exists in this organization; what type of workers is attracted to this climate; what are the basis of the relationship between the company's managers and ordinary employees;
• - who are the clients (consumers), what needs of clients (consumers) the company can successfully satisfy.

The mission of an organization is the basis for formulating its goals. Goals provide the starting point for planning.

Features of management in China

• 9 characteristics of the emerging new management model in China:
  • - Dynamism. The challenge facing managers in the future is balancing a dynamic business environment in which constant balance/tranquility is such a distant prospect that it would be foolish to attempt to achieve it.
  • - Adaptation. Despite the inability of entrepreneurs to be in complete balance with the Chinese business environment, there are economic rhythms, cycles and seasons. Decisions and actions are needed when they are needed.
  • - Flexibility. To maintain balance in such a turbulent and unpredictable world, you cannot afford to be constantly on alert or fully committed to a plan. Chinese managers value the flexibility that uncertainty/imprecision can provide.
  • -Complexity. Chinese management style can be called comprehensive in the sense that it has absorbed and adapted the principles character traits, tools and techniques from different management styles and traditions.
  • - Reciprocity. The understanding that a company is part of a system of interacting elements that have a mutual interest in each other is fully consistent with the emphasis in Chinese culture on mutual obligations of the parties.
  • - Coherence. The Manager's search for broad consensus of opinion in the team follows from the management methods of China itself.
  • - Spirituality. In China, spirituality and materiality are inseparable. It would be strange if the Leader did not use the power of spiritual principles and ideas reflected in Chinese culture.
  • - Discipline. Non-linear logic and spirituality of communication do not mean that the new management style will be “fluffy and pink”; it also implies strict discipline.
  • - Naturalness. The Chinese management style is becoming closer to the style that would have appeared without the “American model.” It becomes "natural". In all meanings of the word. It is based on unity.

Management in China

For the Chinese, money without life is nothing, but life without money is also worthless. Moreover, money in Chinese society is the main expression and measure of love and a sense of solidarity within the same family, where material interests are given paramount importance. Chinese parents give their children red envelopes filled with money on New Year's Day, giving them an object lesson in the importance of money as a sign of personal affection. The same red envelopes (and nothing else!) are given to newlyweds on their wedding day.

Chinese traders have traditionally tended to reduce prices through faster turnover of capital (hence greater effort) and be content with even small profits. The Chinese are ready to work almost around the clock, without weekends or holidays (the only exception is a week-long vacation for the Chinese New Year). Modern Chinese entrepreneurs like to emphasize that the true measure of happiness in life is work that simultaneously brings income and moral satisfaction. The obvious fact is that the Chinese know how to find interest in any work and therefore perform it diligently. And where there is genuine personal interest and good skills, it is easy for both the public and economic success. Hence the high competitiveness of Chinese enterprises and shops where there are Chinese communities. Let us recall, finally, that the Chinese have always placed emphasis on a person’s ability to live together with other people and be in mutually beneficial exchange with them, considering this the most natural property of human consciousness. The Chinese likened the circulation of money and finance to the circulation of vital energy in the body: the more freely this circulation is carried out, the greater the benefit for the whole society.

In short, according to Chinese ideas, life should be used to make money, and to truly live, you need to be rich.

IN real life The traditional attitude of the Chinese to wealth appears as economical thrift, which in the narrow framework of everyday life seems to be a firmly established frugality, even stinginess. In any case, Chinese societies have the highest savings rate in the world.

Money is a favorite topic of conversation in a Chinese company, discussed with a frankness that shocks Europeans (if not Americans). Asking even a stranger how much he paid for his car or the suit he is wearing is by no means considered reprehensible among the Chinese. Based on the answer, at least one can judge the position in society that the person is claiming. As for power, here, of course, objective criteria of social status are of primary importance, but it is also very important to have manners befitting a boss, teacher or celebrity: restraint, royal calm, indulgent cordiality, etc. Generosity, however, is not one of these virtues, although it is not entirely alien to the children of the Middle Country.

It is worth keeping in mind some features of the Chinese family organization - for example, the custom of dividing the family fortune among all heirs, not excluding daughters. Such fragmentation of family property increased the instability of the family’s economic situation, which was aggravated by fierce competition both in economic activity, and in a social career. Since ancient times, the prevailing belief in Chinese society is that family prosperity will not last more than three generations. Classic Chinese novels about family life are almost always narratives of the inevitable decline and demise of a wealthy family. Perhaps this is the reason for the obsessive desire of the head of a Chinese family to leave as much savings as possible to his children in order to ensure the future of his offspring.

But let's return to the characteristics of Chinese sociality. Structurally, the society inherent in Chinese civilization consists of three concentric spheres. Its core is a family collective, whose members are connected by blood ties and, accordingly, by certain unconditional and irrevocable mutual obligations. The external sphere corresponds to the circle of friends and well-wishing acquaintances who are able to provide assistance or service in various matters. On the periphery there are various kinds of strangers - from unfamiliar fellow countrymen to foreigners - with whom no business is conducted. These three groups differ among themselves in the degree of trust placed in them: “they trust their family absolutely, they trust friends and acquaintances to the extent that they are in a relationship of mutual dependence with them and their own “person” depends on them.” In relation to all others, good will is not assumed.”

It is common for the Chinese (which cannot be said, for example, about modern Russians) to trust public opinion, even in the primitive form of “human rumor”, the judgment of history and simply the elements of people’s life, which, as every Chinese is convinced, will itself put everything in its place and endure everyone gets a fair sentence.

In practice, the Chinese often use one simple trick when it comes to trust. Their entire network of acquaintances constitutes a circle of people who deserve only “a little trust.” Within this circle, over time, a narrow circle of close friends is formed who enjoy “great confidence.” In Chinese there is even a special concept for this close friend, which literally means: “knowing you as you know yourself.” Let us note that in the political and business life of China, betrayal of one’s patron is a relatively rare phenomenon.

The classic American image of a businesslike, dry manager professing an “administrative-command” style of work is completely unacceptable in the Chinese environment, where the manager, with all his undeniable power and authority, must behave in a fatherly manner, gently and cordially towards his subordinates, constantly apologizing and thanking them for their efforts.

The need for informal, “heartfelt” connections between a leader and subordinates can be expressed in rather harsh and unusual forms even for democratic America. It seems that only in China can senior government officials give television interviews, lounging in front of the camera in their socks. And this, oddly enough, is also the fulfillment of a certain formality.

Chinese business is dominated by family-owned, or at least family-based enterprises. The Chinese business world is dominated by small and medium-sized companies, specializing in the production of one type of product or providing a very narrow range of services and, as a rule, embedded in a wider network of related and servicing enterprises. Business expansion is accompanied by the separation from the company of related, but largely independent structures that remain true to the principle of narrow specialization. The Chinese people's commitment to small and medium-sized businesses is especially noticeable on the periphery of Chinese civilization and in Southeast Asian countries, where the Chinese community exists in an alien ethnic and cultural environment and develops quite autonomously.

It is not difficult to predict the peculiarities of organizing small, family-based enterprises. They are characterized by simplicity and amorphous structure, weak demarcation between their individual functions, the important role of personal relationships and unwritten rules etiquette, which are certainly more important than laws and formal obligations imposed by contractual relations. The factor of kinship is given unconditional preference, and capital, generally speaking, retains the significance of family property.

What is the nature of Chinese family business from the point of view of its organizational foundations? It is often noted in the literature that the Chinese type of family enterprise is characterized, firstly, by paternalism as the concentration of property, power and authority in the person of the owner of the family business; secondly, the dominance of the personal factor in relationships and, thirdly, increased attention to the cohesion of the corporation and the protection of the interests of its members. What is striking, first of all, is the absolutely exceptional position occupied in the life of the company by its owner - in Chinese laoban. It is he who single-handedly makes almost all decisions concerning the organization and activities of his enterprise, and, moreover, fulfills his role as a leader in a paternalistic manner that has long disappeared in the West, appearing to his subordinates at the same time as a kind and strict father, mentor and elder friend. In accordance with the ancient rules of the Chinese “art of power,” only he has all the information about the situation of the enterprise and sparingly shares it with individual employees according to their function and rank. Only he knows about the motives and purposes of decision-making, which allows him to maintain an appropriate distance from employees. The latter are left with guesswork and silent rivalry with their colleagues, which only strengthens the power of the owner. An open exchange of opinions, and especially opposition to the boss, are completely unthinkable things in the Chinese environment. Moreover, openness is impossible even in relations between ordinary employees, because every Chinese has been taught since childhood to keep his opinion to himself and to “swallow” resentment and dissatisfaction for the sake of harmony in the team. He tries not to discuss, much less argue, but to “silently comprehend” the meaning of what is happening. For every dispute, even if resolved, the Taoist Patriarch Lao Tzu said, leaves an unpleasant aftertaste in the heart for a long time, if not forever, and this can become the cause of a new conflict.

The inevitable consequence of such an authoritarian and at the same time amorphous corporation, held together by a more symbolic unity, is intrigue and factional struggle among employees, their greedy interest in all kinds of gossip and rumors. Moreover, in such conditions, employees do not feel a sense of loyalty to the company or even its owner, and management does not really trust the lower-level personnel. Vigilant monitoring of the actions of subordinates by superiors is considered reasonable and necessary.

The main quality of the Chinese manager is virtuoso skill, developed through many years of methodical exercises. This is precisely the general ideal of human practice in Chinese civilization.

Another facet is the ineradicable suspicion of management towards ordinary employees and an almost manic desire to control every step of their subordinates. This almost manic desire to ensure complete control over the activities of the enterprise betrays the same deep-seated uncertainty in the future, which is manifested in the habit of the Chinese to evaluate success in life with money and, moreover, to save as much as possible for a rainy day.

For their part, the employees had to show every possible diligence and devotion not so much to the company as to its owner personally. A personal request from the owner to the employee, and moreover in an emphatically polite form, will certainly have an effect.

Trade unions are weak and focused on cooperation with enterprise management. An open conflict with management and, especially, a strike are practically excluded.

Naturally, the authoritarian leadership style of a Chinese company does not promote initiative on the part of subordinates and reduces their sense of personal responsibility. Another important limitation of a Chinese family business is the company's inability to expand. The owner's need to maintain sole control over all parties business activities and the reluctance to diversify these activities, coupled with the traditional caution of Chinese entrepreneurs, set their own strict limits to the growth of even a very successfully operating enterprise. It usually buds from it new company, headed by a member of the family running the business. And even if the company grows larger over time, it is still run as a family business.

Like any type of organization, Chinese family businesses have their own strengths and weak sides, and it is hardly possible to give a strictly objective assessment of their activities. The advantages of such companies include relatively high level cohesion of its employees, effective cooperation thanks to sustainable personal connections, low transaction costs, the ability to quickly respond to changes in the situation, no need for strict control of personnel and production. As for the shortcomings, they include the lack of initiative and innovation among lower employees and a clear strategy among management, lack of professionalism, the constant threat of division of personnel into rival factions and, finally, extremely limited opportunities for cooperation.

An important feature of the Chinese business structure is the general amorphism of individual conglomerates of companies and the entire business web of the business community, with the presence of a strong paternalistic power of the owner in each family or, at best, predominantly family firm. This circumstance makes it very difficult to determine credit ratings for Chinese corporations and, in general, to obtain any clear information about the activities of individual Chinese entrepreneurs. The relevant agencies and consulting firms, as a rule, cannot say anything specific either about the origin of Chinese capital or, most importantly, about the decision-making methodology in Chinese companies. The predominance of a shared web of connections prevents the emergence of distinctive corporate brands in Chinese business. This is one of the biggest weaknesses of the Chinese management style.

Ironically, Chinese companies are perhaps an inexhaustible source of fresh ideas and new ways of thinking in terms of management. In China, state-owned enterprises are mostly regulated corporate giants that are experimenting with Western management practices. Today there is even more to learn about governance from China than from many other countries.

Over the past thirty years, Chinese companies have learned to use their management approach because they have to operate in a turbulent environment. What is often perceived as a strictly controlled development of state capitalism is in fact a rapidly evolving ecosystem in which companies have to work hard to maintain growth rates and withstand crises, as well as survive in conditions of mass urbanization, huge rural markets, fierce competition and widespread corruption.

Large Chinese entrepreneurs also use their own approach to managing people. They are traditionally accustomed to viewing the employees of their organization as family members. But in return they demand a lot from them. Company presidents often start from humble beginnings. Three of China's legendary founders—Haier's Zhang Ruimin, ZTE's Hu Weigui, and Wanxiang's Lu—all began their careers as factory workers. Other companies were founded by merchants, teachers, or government officials. All these companies are constantly creating alliances, developing a large number of new products and are not afraid to invest in different areas of activity.

CEOs of large companies in China have two general approaches to management. The first is that they believe that they should create their own ecosystems. The Chinese founding leader believes that he will have to build everything from scratch - relationships with employees, suppliers, government officials. And also increase your capital yourself.

The second approach, widespread among the founders of Chinese companies, is that they must also know the principles of public administration well, the principles of managing commercial operations. For decades, the Communist Party has had a tense relationship with private companies. Startups did not have the necessary reputation, so standard sources of raw materials, talent and Money were inaccessible to them. Chinese businessmen still have to turn to officials to obtain the necessary operating licenses, find workers and raise capital. However, they have already learned how to make the system work for them.

And the results would be the envy of Charles Darwin himself, who was precisely engaged in research into how different types of living organisms evolve under the influence of environmental pressure. If we talk about the commercial equivalent of the Cambrian period of explosion and extinction of species, China since 1991 fits well as an example. In China, many entrepreneurs have failed. But those who survived became flexible, productive and strong competitors.

Unique management practices in China. Over the past five years, we have studied more than 30 large private Chinese companies. And they found that most of them have a certain commercial mindset that values ​​high capital turnover and time management (even more than excellence); the Confucian approach, which favors a simple organizational structure where everyone reports to senior management; intense fear of too much debt; and skills to collaborate with government officials at various levels. Moreover, good companies are defined by something more, namely the desire and openness to experiment with radically new management techniques.

Simple organization structure. Chinese CEOs are known for controlling departments from above. But few people know about their ability to adapt, which helps them effectively respond to changes in the market and quickly introduce new activities. In China there is a constant need for adaptability. It is required not only to keep up with the market, but also with the differences in development between regions and the level of authority of local officials.

Localization of benefits. Most of China is still in a state of development. This means the country has many inexperienced buyers, thinly capitalized companies and unique local business traditions. The concept of quality, for example, reflects local needs. Construction companies pay a premium for cement that dries quickly or can be poured at low temperatures because they want to build with maximum speed and work seven days a week. They won't pay extra for cement that lasts 50 years instead of 30. Localization provides companies with the opportunity to add value through what they offer to their customers and partners or how they go to market.

Fast product development process. The speed at which Chinese companies are developing new products, from existing technologies to ramping up mass production, is impressive. Leader Chinese market in the production of baby strollers and car seats, it is ahead of its competitors, introducing an average of 100 new models to the market every quarter. Fast food chains, including KFC China, introduce more new products to consumers each year than their U.S. counterparts. Because local taste preferences require it.

The expertise that Chinese companies rely on is mostly low-level industrial skills. They do not involve creation high technology, original designs and selection of materials. Nor do they require consumer knowledge or marketing tricks. Because of their orientation, Chinese corporate practices differ from Western ones in several key ways:

In Chinese companies, development and production are closely linked to each other. Multinational companies differentiate these two areas of activity to a certain extent.

Chinese companies obtain new technologies through official licensing or reverse engineering. But all the physical work of testing and production is done in-house. Multinational corporations, which differ in their resource base, do the opposite.

Chinese companies often hire mid-level design and manufacturing professionals, although the cost of their services is increasingly rising. Processes in multinational companies are usually associated with the desire to reduce production steps and the number of working hours.

Skillful use of non-market strategies. In China, it is very important to build relationships with the government and other departments. Smart companies try to understand the organizational structure of the party and government structure in each city or province. The whole trick is that you need to know which officials to contact and on what issues, and what their interests are.

Chinese company executives see forming personal relationships with party officials as a way to rationally allocate costs, tax obligations and market access. In turn, the parties need entrepreneurs to create a production base in the country and increase tax revenues. In short, the relationship between company founders and officials is more often related to issues of solving some problems than to corruption.

The essence of Chinese business is adaptation to the environment. Management practices that develop within certain limited conditions within a country become more authentic, vertically organized and localized. In comparison, American multinational companies have to work hard to be able to react quickly, despite numerous mechanisms for coordination, integration and control over their structural divisions. The future of management lies somewhere between the hierarchical reform of Western corporations and the democratic transformation of Chinese companies. They have a lot to learn from each other.

Harvard Business School Publishing Corp.

planning1

Types of planning. After the formation of the People's Republic of China for many years until the beginning of the 21st century. planning in the PRC was divided into three types: 1) long-term (for 10 years or more), medium-term (for 5 years) and current (for 1 year).

In the PRC there were also four levels of planning - national, sectoral, territorial and enterprise-wide. All types of planning were interconnected.

Long-term planning was programmatic in nature. The strategic goals, course and national economic proportions of economic and social development countries, development rates, main indicators and main objects capital construction, the main indicators of the location of productive forces and scientific and technical policy, national programs were developed. Such programs include the agricultural development program for 1956-1967. (project), 12-year program for the development of science and technology for 1956-1967, 10-year program for the development of the national economy for 1976-1985.

Medium-term planning was based on long-term planning and established specific indicators for deadlines. For the period of the five-year plan - the main national economic proportions for the five-year period, the main indicators of industrial and agricultural development and growth rates, increasing the living standards of the population, the scale of investment in fixed production assets, the main requirements for development social sphere, the main activities for the implementation of technical and economic policies and the implementation of plans. After the formation of the People's Republic of China in 1949, 10 five-year plans were drawn up and implemented, of which the most detailed was the first five-year plan (1953-1957), drawn up not only

1 Section prepared by Doctor of Economics A.V. Ostrovsky, Institute Far East RAS.

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at the national level, but also by industry and territory.

Current (annual) planning was the most specific, its content was more complete than five-year planning. During the preparation of the annual plan, it was necessary to develop financial, currency and credit balances, balances of material resources, work force etc. Since 1953, an annual plan has been drawn up and submitted for execution. However, during the Cultural Revolution, the work of drawing up plans was weakened.

According to Chinese scholars in the 1980s, the establishment of long-term, five-year and annual plans for the development of the national economy could provide a combination of long-term goals and ongoing work. In other words, the goals and objectives of medium- and long-term planning determined the course of development for the future and could guarantee the continuity and stability of the plan, avoid failures in economic construction" During the first five-year plans in the PRC, planning was based on annual plans for the development of the national economy, but later the focus was shifted to drawing up medium-term plans for five-year plans.

National economic planning included all four main stages of social reproduction - production, distribution, exchange, consumption. This included plans for the following indicators: national income; agricultural production; industrial production; transport and communications; capital construction; urban construction; environmental protection; science and technology; introduction of technology; geological exploration; trade; international trade; finance; foreign exchange budget; prices; people's life and public welfare; culture; healthcare; education and physical education; population; labor and wages; distribution of material resources and state reserves.

Methods for drawing up national economic plans. When drawing up plans in China, four basic principles were used: 1) conduct sample surveys, analyze the situation based on reality; 2) implement the course, line and program of the party; 3) determine the pace of development of industrial and agricultural

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production; 4) draw up a comprehensive balance of the national economy. All assigned tasks were entrusted to the State Planning Committee of the People's Republic of China, which, based on the balances of industries and regions, was supposed to compile the balance of the entire national economy of the country.

The comprehensive national economic balance consisted of six areas:

determination of the basic economic proportions between agriculture, light and heavy industry, between accumulation and consumption, between energy, transport and other sectors, between economic and cultural construction and military construction, between simple and expanded reproduction, between production and non-production construction, etc.;

development of a balance of labor, financial and material resources, which included the compilation of six main balances - budget, credit, currency, material, trade and labor;

territorial location of production, which implied the use of local advantages and achievement of maximum results based on the availability of natural resources and existing technical and economic conditions and contributed to the rational division of labor between the coastal and inland regions of the country;

a combination of annual and five-year economic development plans, which contributed to sustainable economic development;

planning at all levels of national economic development, taking into account the opinions of the people;

using all possible measures to improve economic efficiency.

The procedure for drawing up plans. The procedure for drawing up long- and medium-term plans was basically the work of the supreme planning body - the State Planning Committee of the People's Republic of China, which, based on taking into account opinions at all levels, compiled a comprehensive national economic balance, and then, after the approval of quantitative indicators by the highest executive body - the State Council of the People's Republic of China - brought them to

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ministries and departments, as well as provinces, cities of central subordination, autonomous regions.

At the second stage, all ministries and departments of the State Council of the People's Republic of China and the authorities of provinces, cities of central subordination, based on control figures, compiled the national economic balance at the local level - provinces, cities of central subordination, autonomous region. Then, after coordinating the national economic indicators of local authorities with the State Planning Committee of the People's Republic of China and central ministries and departments, the State Council of the People's Republic of China determined plans for lower-level departments. Regional authorities established their plans for the development of the national economy for the regions.

At the next stage, the State Planning Committee of the People's Republic of China, based on draft plans of ministries and departments and local plans for the development of the national economy, compiled a comprehensive balance throughout the country and proposed a draft plan for the development of the national economy. Then the State Council of the People's Republic of China convened a meeting to discuss the draft plan for the development of the national economy and sent it for approval to a session of the highest legislative body - the National People's Congress (NPC). After this, the plan was sent to grassroots structures. Annual plans were drawn up and approved in the same manner as medium- and long-term ones. Medium- and long-term plans were required to be submitted a year before being sent to lower regions and departments. Annual plans were drawn up in June-July and approved in October so that at the end of the year they were brought to the grassroots structures. Plans for the sowing campaign and irrigation construction had to be submitted earlier.

Execute, review and coordinate planning. IN

The main type of planning work of the PRC was the organization of the implementation of the planned indicators for the development of the national economy by industry and region. The relevant ministries and departments and planning bodies at the regional level were responsible for this. The material resources necessary for production were distributed at meetings on wholesale purchases, where enterprises in the production sector, according to plans, were allocated the necessary types of products in accordance with the required standards.

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That's where contracts were signed. For agricultural enterprises, after the transition to a production responsibility system in the early 80s, the state approved the procurement plan and signed contracts, subsequently using such economic levers as prices, taxes, credit, premium purchases, futures contracts for the purchase of products, which guaranteed implementation plan.

Plan implementation was regularly monitored different ways, of which four main ones can be distinguished:

with the help of statistical information on the progress of fulfilling planned tasks, which was provided monthly, quarterly and annually by the State Statistical Office;

through banking control over the working capital of enterprises, fund expenses wages and the expenditure of funds for capital construction, which was carried out by the People's Bank of China, which performs the functions of the Central Bank of the PRC;

by monitoring the expenditure of material resources by enterprises by the Logistics Committee;

in-depth control of local authorities over the activities of enterprises and grassroots structures. Coordination of the implementation of planned tasks was carried out on the basis of the principle of dividing management functions into units, reporting to a higher authority on the progress of program implementation and its approval. In case of revision of plan targets, it was necessary to obtain approval from a higher planning authority. If it was necessary to revise planning targets at the level of the State Planning Committee of the People's Republic of China, the consent of the NPC or the NPC Standing Committee was required. In case of revision of the annual plan, clarifications could be submitted for discussion in the third quarter at the latest. current year.

Thus, in the early 80s, the PRC maintained a centralized planning system, which in many ways resembled the Soviet planning system that had developed by the early 30s. However, in the PRC, unlike the USSR, local leaders had more freedom in

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implementation of planned targets, especially in the field of agriculture, related to taking into account local conditions in various regions of China.

Planning system. In the 50-70s, government planning bodies directly determined the socio-economic course and goals, growth rates, the level of production of the main types of industrial and agricultural products, the most important proportions, scale, use and main objects of investment in fixed production assets, territorial location, growth in living standards of the population, state budget, money issue, budget revenues and expenses, purchases, distribution and turnover of material resources, prices for basic goods. Plans for departments and regions were integral part state plan. With unified planning, the planning order was determined separately for the center and places.

The following main areas of planning were identified: 1) enterprises and institutions; 2) investments in fixed production assets; 3) industrial and agricultural products; 4) budget income and expenses; 5) labor force.

Enterprises and institutions. For a small part of enterprises, the plan was drawn up directly by departments of the State Council of the People's Republic of China or jointly with local authorities. For these enterprises it was determined production plans, construction plans and financial plans, for them basic material resources were allocated directly from the center, product distribution plans were drawn up, local authorities were responsible for the supply of material resources and consumer goods. For these enterprises, fuel and raw materials were allocated, which were consumed according to certain standards. All other enterprises were managed by local authorities or jointly with central authorities (the so-called enterprises of double subordination). Production, construction and financial plans for these enterprises were formed by local authorities, as well as the balance of supply, production and sales, but they were part of the state plan.

Investments in fixed production assets. The state, represented by the departments of the State Council of the People's Republic of China, was responsible for

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responsibility for the distribution of capital investments within the framework of the central state budget, departmental self-financing, the use and return of state and foreign loans. Local authorities were responsible for local investments, local self-financing, the use and repayment of state and foreign loans locally, but all these investments were included in the general national economic balance and were included in the state plan. Bank loans were allocated by banks on the basis state plans. All capital investments for large and medium-sized facilities, regardless of funding sources, were approved by the state, for small facilities - by local departments.

Industrial and agricultural products. The production and distribution of industrial and agricultural products were carried out on the basis of the national economic development plan. For example, the plan for the production and purchase of grain and cotton was drawn up by the state. The production and distribution of industrial products such as textiles, bicycles, sewing machines, coal, steel, cement, chemical fertilizers, machine tools (except for production in small enterprises) were controlled government agencies. The supply of means of production was ensured by the method of unified state management.

Budget income and expenses. The state budget was divided into central and local. Local budget revenues, after transferring part of the revenues to the central budget, were used at the local level; in case of excess expenses, funds were allocated from the central budget for local budgets at the level of provinces, cities and autonomous regions. Local budgets were subject to state approval.

Work force. The state controlled the implementation of the plan for recruiting labor to state-owned enterprises; local authorities were responsible for the recruitment and distribution of labor. The fulfillment of the recruitment plan targets for collective sector enterprises was controlled by local authorities.

Until the beginning of the 80s, all administrative and economic activities of enterprises were regulated above

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standing central departments. All necessary funds could only be obtained after making a request to a higher authority; after the transfer, only a small amount of money was returned to the depreciation fund. However, a few years later, in the early 80s, after the expansion of the rights of economic independence, enterprises were given part of the rights to draw up plans, purchase and sell products, distribute profits, and use funds.

Subsequently, in accordance with the new government guidelines for expanding the rights of enterprises, four main forms of planning were identified based on the place of enterprises in fulfilling the tasks of the state plan, the form of ownership of the enterprise, the type, importance and standards of the enterprise's products. The first type of planning - directive planning - included the backbone state enterprises or enterprises producing most important species products according to the state plan for the development of the national economy; their share in the volume of gross industrial and agricultural output was high, but the range of products was small. The second type of planning included enterprises whose production underwent changes in accordance with the transition to the market, but was carried out on the basis of approvals within the framework of the state plan. It was a wide range of products whose production was scattered across a large number of small enterprises and individual manufacturers; their share in the gross output of industry and agriculture was small. In addition, there were two more types of enterprises. In one category of enterprises, the production of most of the products was regulated by the state plan, the production of a smaller part of the products was carried out on the basis market demand and suggestions. In another category of enterprises, on the contrary, the production of most of the products was regulated by the market, and a smaller part by the plan.

Thus, in the early 80s, the system of centralized planning for economic development underwent certain changes, and a significant part of the production began to be produced not on the basis of planned directives.

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indicators, but based on market criteria. Subsequently, as the reform of the planning system developed, the share of enterprises of the first type - directive planning - began to gradually decline while the share of enterprises oriented primarily towards the market increased.

In the early 80s, the PRC began the transition from a planned to a market economy. This was reflected in the fact that in the Chinese village they began to introduce a system of house-to-house contracting and production responsibility everywhere; in the city, enterprises were given the opportunity to first use part of the profits as bonuses for the workforce, and later the system of deductions from profits to the budget was replaced by tax payments . As a result, changes occurred in the system of strategic management of the national economy, which were associated with a gradual shift away from constant control over the implementation of national economic indicators at the level of enterprises, regions and ministries and departments and a transition to control over the activities of all structures using various economic levers, such as taxes, preferential loans, public procurement products at preferential prices, etc. By the end of the 20th century. There was a gradual transition from a system of directive planning to a system of indicative planning for most national economic indicators. Nevertheless, for better controllability of the national economy in the context of a growing energy shortage and an aggravation of the situation in transport, a small number of indicators were retained as policy indicators (in the field of energy and transport). As a result, China has so far avoided significant inflation by maintaining low prices for electricity, fuel and transport services.

Major changes in the planning system began with the preparation of the 10th Five-Year Plan (2001-2005), which marked a transition from the establishment of quantitative to qualitative indicators. This was due to the entry of China into the WTO in December 2001. As a result of negotiations between the WTO and the PRC, both parties came to the conclusion that China receives a five-year transition period to settle all laws and regulations that

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which must meet the requirements of a market, not a planned economy. If in the 80-90s changes in the national economic planning system proceeded at a slow pace, many quantitative indicators were still established and the leading role of planning bodies, ministries and departments and local authorities remained, then since 2000, as a result of joining the WTO, administrative -economic functions began to move to direct producers and became increasingly important in economic activity began to play various legislative acts. As noted in Chinese literature, in accordance with the requirements of the 10th Five-Year Plan to “govern the state in accordance with laws,” the administrative work of the government should move in the direction of legitimization. This means that all work on drawing up plans for the development of the national economy must also be carried out on a legal basis.

Nevertheless, the main events for the transition from a planned to a market economy took place over 20 years during four five-year plans - from the 6th to the 9th (from 1980 to 2000), and all subsequent events within the framework of the 10th (2001) -2005) and the 11th (2006-2010) five-year plans for the development of the national economy mark a further departure from the system of directive planning and the transition to a system of directional planning based on the formulation of medium-term (5 years) and long-term (many years ) plans for the development of the Chinese economy. In general, we can identify five main areas of transition in the strategic planning system of the Chinese economy during the reform period. 1.

From economic planning to planning of the national economy and social development. Until the early 80s, quantitative planning of industrial and agricultural production indicators was carried out, and an independent comprehensive industrial system was created.

All social indicators were not included in the necessary indicators for the implementation of the five-year plan. Since the 80s (6th Five-Year Plan), the national economic development plan has turned into a plan for economic and social development. In the medium-term and long term plans not only economic ones were already included

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indicators, but also plans for social development, development of the “third sphere” of the economy, environmental protection, protection of natural resources, etc., which occupied more and more space in the five-year plans. 2.

From five-year planning as a medium-term plan to a combination of five-year and long-term planning. Starting from the 90s (8th Five-Year Plan), the PRC began to draw up plans for ten-year development of the national economy, and from the 9th Five-Year Plan (1995) - long-term plans for the development of the national economy for 15 years at once. Thus, there was a combination of medium-term and long-term planning when drawing up national economic plans in the context of the transition to a market economy. 3.

From policy planning to macroeconomic, strategic and political planning. With the transition to a market economy, the directive nature of planning began to gradually weaken with the increasing development of directional planning.

Plans began to be predictive and indicative, and directional planning was focused on issues of macroeconomic control, social progress, the environment and economic structure. The total number of traditional quantitative indicators has increasingly decreased. The total number of planned capital construction projects was also reduced. 4.

From unified planning to planning by management levels. During the reform and transition from directive to guiding planning, the role of sectoral and regional planning has noticeably increased. State planning has the character of guiding planning in relation to plans for the economic development of regions and industries, however, the restrictions are insignificant; goals, objectives, policies and indicators are determined locally within the framework of the task at the state level. 5.

When drawing up medium- and long-term plans, increasing the degree of transparency of information. When drawing up medium- and long-term plans for economic development, the volume of information for decision-making by economic entities increases significantly.

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ties (enterprises, organizations, etc.), who receive more opportunities to discuss plans and programs for economic development.

The main changes in the system of preparing state plans for the development of the national economy occurred during the preparation of the 10th five-year plan (2000-2005) in the context of China's accession to the WTO, the acceleration of restructuring of the world economy, the development of informatization, new and high technologies, the computerization of society and scientific- technological progress, a significant increase in the number of transnational corporations (TNCs) and the expansion of the scale of their activities. As a result, China has experienced significant changes in its economy, which have largely contributed to changes in the system of drawing up national economic plans.

In 1980, when drawing up a plan for the development of the national economy, a fourfold increase in the gross national product (GNP) was planned by 2000 compared to 1980. Absolute indicators GNP growth for 2000 was exceeded already in 1995, GNP per capita indicators were exceeded in 1997, and in China a society of “small prosperity” was basically built. Achieving this indicator was planned for the implementation of the second stage of the strategic plan for the development of the national economy of the PRC. Currently, China is fulfilling the task of implementing the third stage of development - the modernization of society.

If at the first stage the main task of regulating the economic structure was to compensate for various kinds of deficits and eliminate economic imbalances, then at present the main task is comprehensive and strategic regulation. Over more than 20 years of economic reform, both the level of development of the productive forces and the economic power of China have increased. The efficiency of the supply system has increased, infrastructure has been developed, the shortage of basic types of agricultural products has gradually disappeared and, conversely, problems of its surplus have arisen. The production capabilities of Chinese industry have increased, and a buyer's market has emerged in China due to the fact that the relationship between supply and demand has changed.

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We eat, and economic growth is no longer limited by supply and sales, but by consumer demand. There has been a change in guidelines in the economy - from the desire to achieve quantitative indicators to improving quality indicators by changing the sectoral structure of production and the transition to comprehensive and strategic planning of the proportions between sectors of the economy, city and countryside, various regions, supply and demand.

In the process of transition to medium- and long-term planning, more and more attention was paid to purely economic levers, and the degree of marketization of society increased. In the course of macroregulation in the market, its role in the distribution of natural resources is becoming increasingly apparent. At the beginning of the 21st century. There was a transition from traditional methods of economic reform to new methods of comprehensive improvement of the economic model, expressed in the regulation of the economic interests of the state, enterprise and individual worker.

During the process of China's accession to the WTO, the world experienced an acceleration of economic globalization processes. For more than 20 years, there has been a rapid development of foreign economic processes, the Chinese economy has become increasingly drawn into the system of world economic relations and the international division of labor, and the country’s accession to the WTO has only accelerated this process.

Currently, in the process of drawing up plans for the development of the national economy of the PRC, three types of planning are distinguished: 1) program planning; 2) planning for main objects; 3) regional and sectoral planning.

Program planning. The result of program planning was the drawing up of a five-year economic development program and a long-term development program until 2010. This type of planning provides for the drawing up of a comprehensive strategic program for the development of the national economy at the beginning of the 21st century, which should play a guiding role for all other plans - both annual and and for macroeconomic policy.

Planning for main objects. This kind of planning should be carried out for those types of economic

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economic activities that are difficult to carry out using the opportunities of a market economy, and require government intervention in sectoral or regional planning to solve the economic problems facing the country. This type of planning allows you to expand and clarify program planning tasks. Major works planning determines the responsibilities and duties of the government, the major capital projects (for example, the construction of the railway in Tibet or the Sanxia hydroelectric power station on the Yangtze River), the territorial location of the projects and the necessary distribution of natural resources between them.

Regional and sectoral planning. Industry planning should determine the degree of marketization of industries and trends in system changes, embody the technical and economic features of industries, observe the principles of inter-industry and intra-industry competition, fight monopolism, and analyze the main trends in the development of domestic and world markets. Regional planning consists of drawing up plans for regional economic and social development by local authorities at the county level and above. First, a plan for the development of the national economy is drawn up at the provincial level, which should generally correspond to state programs. These programs must be consistent with the plans for the main facilities, sectoral plans and plans of neighboring regions. All regional plans should take into account the general situation in the country and be based on local conditions.

The procedure for drawing up all types of long-term and medium-term plans should also be based on the requirement to “govern the state on the basis of law.” In total, five stages were identified in drawing up plans for the 10th Five-Year Plan (2001-2005) and the 11th Five-Year Plan (2006-2010): 1) drawing up a program; 2) drawing up a plan for the main objects; 3) drawing up sectoral programs; 4) drawing up regional programs; 5) corrections in all types of programs. 1.

Drawing up the program. The State Council of the People's Republic of China proposes a draft program, the NPC approves it, the departments responsible for planning draw up a draft program for

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based on the requirements of the State Council of the People's Republic of China. The draft program must contain a development strategy, macro-regulation goals, main areas of development, as well as the necessary coordination of the tasks of departments responsible for macro-regulation and industry departments. 2.

Drawing up a plan for the main objects. This plan is prepared by state development planning departments and local governments. They jointly determine, based on the forecast of the development area, supply and demand in the market, the main objects for planning. After drawing up a draft plan for the main facilities, the opinions of all interested parties are taken into account during the survey, a consultative meeting is convened, at which representatives of various departments of the State Council of the People's Republic of China and representatives of local authorities at the provincial level are present. As a result, an agreed decision is made on the plan for the main facilities, which is approved by the State Council of the People's Republic of China. 3.

Drawing up industry programs. The departments of the State Council of the People's Republic of China are responsible for drawing up sectoral programs that must be linked with each other. They must make a forecast of the development of the situation in the industry, supply and demand in the market and, based on taking into account the opinions of interested departments and regions, develop a concept for an industry development plan. Industry departments make amendments to the program, and after finalizing the amendments, it is approved by the relevant department. 4.

Drawing up regional programs. The preparation of regional economic development programs is the responsibility of local authorities at the provincial level. They are then approved by local people's congresses. Local planning departments are responsible for drafting the program, which must be linked to the national economic development program. Subsequent to approval, the draft regional development program is coordinated with the program for the construction of major local facilities, the program for the placement of major facilities for the development of natural resources and other facilities that influence the main content of the country’s economic and social development program. After this, the program is discussed and approved in advance.

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meeting of the local Council of People's Commissars and sent to the relevant departments. 5.

Corrections in all types of programs. Once approved programs have been sent, they cannot be changed arbitrarily by both organizations and individuals. All amendments must be regulatory in nature.

Thus, over the past 20-odd years since the start of economic reform in the late 70s, the strategic planning system in China has undergone significant changes: from centralized directive planning with the definition large quantity fixed natural indicators of production of industrial and agricultural products to guide planning with the preparation of long-term and medium-term economic and social programs development of the national economy. The main place in them was occupied by programs for the construction of basic facilities, sectoral and regional programs, in which there were practically no fixed natural indicators, and only a few indicative indicators of a general nature were used, such as the total population of the country, GDP growth rate, GDP per capita and etc.

Forecasting the development of the Chinese economy in the context of the transition to a market at the beginning of the 21st century. At the beginning of the 21st century. In the new round of reform, the state in the PRC continues to play an important role in managing the country’s economy. Although the Chinese press says less and less about the leadership and guiding role of the CPC, about the dictatorship of the proletariat, nevertheless the main guidelines economic life in the country are scheduled between sessions of the highest legislative body of the PRC - the National People's Congress (NPC) and the highest advisory body of the PRC - the People's Political Consultative Council of China (CPPCC), which are held annually in March. The Chinese Communist Party is gradually moving behind the scenes, from where it continues to lead political and economic processes in the country.

The 16th Congress of the CPC, held in November 2002, reaffirmed that the process of modernization of the country with economic modernization as the basis remains the main

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direction of development of social and political life of the PRC. The congress set the task of increasing GDP by 4 times by 2020 compared to 2000 and building a “society of small prosperity,” which corresponds to an average annual GDP per capita of $3,000 per year1.

IN last years The leadership of the PRC in every possible way deviates from the methods of directive planning and in the documents of the congresses and plenums of the CPC and sessions of the National People's Congress, very few specific planned indicators for the development of the national economy of the PRC are given, which are mostly indicative in nature. Recently, the main indicator of GDP growth has been the average annual growth rate. In particular, the work of the Development Center of the State Council of the People's Republic of China noted that the average annual GDP growth rate in the 11th Five-Year Plan (2006-2010) should be maintained at the level of 8%, and in 2010 the GDP indicator should be 21.5 trillion yuan ( approximately 2.6 trillion dollars at current exchange rates) with an indicator of 1900 dollars per year per capita in 2010. In the next 10 years, GDP should double compared to 2010 and amount to 43 trillion yuan (5 .4 trillion dollars) or approximately $3,500 per capita in 2020, and according to this indicator, China will join the ranks of countries with middle income per capita.

Most of the national economic tasks for the 11th Five-Year Plan (2006-2010) and until 2020 were published not in the form of directive indicators that must be fulfilled at any cost, but in the form of tasks that are set for society. Based on the results of the development of the national economy of the PRC before the start of the 11th Five-Year Plan, six main points were noted that characterize the current level of economic development of the country. Firstly, the socio-economic development of the country has entered a new stage, characterized by a per capita GDP of approximately $1,400 per year, changes have occurred in consumer demand, the regulation of the industry structure, and the acceleration of urbanization processes. Secondly, the scale of economic growth that opened up to the country as a result of moving away from inflation expanded. Thirdly, economic

1 See: Kuzyk B.N., Titarenko M.L. China - Russia 2050: co-development strategy. M., 2006. P. 332.

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The mic system still maintains a state of a certain transitional quality, which provides for the preservation of a comprehensive, balanced and sustainable development. Fourthly, social contradictions persist, which are expressed in income inequality, unemployment due to structural adjustment, and population migration due to the two-sector economy of urban and rural areas. Fifthly, there have been major changes in the external environment, which are reflected in the PRC's accession to the WTO. And sixthly, the “development strategy” has undergone a change, which includes the transition from extensive methods economic development to intensive, which involves increasing the role of science and technology in economic development.

In accordance with the assessment of the socio-economic situation in the country, the main tasks for the development of the national economy of the People's Republic of China were set for the 11th Five-Year Plan (2006-2010) and for the next 10 years.

As we see, the PRC leadership has already switched to new methods of economic management, related not to the directive planning of numerous economic indicators, but to the formation of the necessary economic conditions to achieve the intended goals and objectives. Numerous newspaper and scientific articles and materials from the NPC session in March 2006 identified seven main conditions that must be implemented to successfully solve the problems of economic reform: 1) the presence of a relatively strong material and technical basis; 2) rapid accumulation of capital and high level of investment; 3) expansion of the domestic market; 4) the presence of a large amount of labor and natural resources; 5)

deepening reforms to develop a creative environment; 6)

socio-political stability; 7) favorable external environment.

According to the Chinese leadership, the above seven basic conditions can ensure the further development of reforms with comprehensive consideration and analysis of the four the most important problems modern development China. The main issue remains the development of a transition model of economic growth. The previous model, based on extensive development factors, such as the use of a large amount of labor, energy, raw materials and

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materials is gradually depleting itself due to the growing shortage of labor and natural resources. In these conditions, China is faced with the task of transitioning to intensive forms of development, improving the quality of the workforce, saving raw materials and especially energy resources, which are scarce for the country.

The second factor is the rapid pace of urbanization in the country, which is associated with an increase in labor productivity in agriculture, displacement of peasants from the land and the need to develop non-agricultural sectors, the share of employment in which in China is much lower than in developed countries. According to estimates made in 1995, the share of the urban population will increase to 50% in 2010, and to 64% by 2020, which will create new challenges for the Chinese economy associated with the development of additional infrastructure in cities - roads, heat - and electricity supply, education and healthcare, etc.

One more important factor are social problems, caused by increased unemployment in rural areas due to a reduction in arable areas and increased labor productivity in agriculture, as well as a growing income gap between different segments of the population, the need to ensure social guarantees in a market economy for the unemployed, the elderly, women in household, as well as strengthening the mechanism of social mobility, which will relieve tension in society due to social stratification, which is a reflection of changes in the social structure of society during the transition from a planned to a market economy.

The last important point that has a serious impact on the development of reforms in Chinese society is the need to increase the level of openness of Chinese society as a whole. This means increasing the share of export and import quotas in GDP, which will expand capacity and increase demand in the domestic market, as well as ensure output Chinese goods to the world market (and this is loading production capacity) and foreign exchange earnings necessary to obtain natural resources and raw materials from abroad.

Implementation of the entire range of issues related to the implementation of the set national economic tasks,

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will allow China to enter a new stage of transition to a market economy and build a society of “small prosperity”, and subsequently a society of “prosperity”. Thus, economic reform in China has been developing for more than 25 years and will continue to develop under the leadership of the state, which carries out strategic planning of the national economy and, if necessary, adjusts the planned reform programs through the highest legislative body - the National People's Congress, the highest executive body - the State Council of the People's Republic of China and under the leadership of the CCP.

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