Pricing methods used by the enterprise in the market. Business-friendly pricing methods. The most common pricing mistakes

Submarines are a special class of warships that, in addition to all the qualities of warships, have the ability to swim underwater, maneuvering along the course and depth. By design (Fig. 1.20) submarines there are:

Single-hulled, having one strong hull, which ends at the bow and stern with well-streamlined ends of a lightweight design;
- half-hulled, having, in addition to a durable body, also a lightweight one, but not along the entire contour of the durable body;
- double-hulled, having two hulls - strong and lightweight, the latter completely encircling the perimeter of the strong one and extending the entire length of the boat. Currently, most submarines are double-hulled.

Rice. 1.20. Design types of submarines:
a - single-hull; b - one and a half hull; c - double-hull; 1 - durable body; 2 - conning tower; 3 - superstructure; 4 - keel; 5 - light body

Rice. 1.21. longitudinal section of a diesel battery submarine:
1 - durable body; 2 - bow torpedo tubes; 3 - light body; bow torpedo compartment; 5 - torpedo loading hatch; 6 - superstructure; 7 - durable conning tower; 8 - cutting fence; 9 - retractable devices; 10 - entrance hatch; 11 - stern torpedo tubes; 12 - aft end; 13 - rudder blade; 14 - aft trim tank; 15 - end (aft) watertight bulkhead; 16 - aft torpedo compartment; 17 - internal waterproof bulkhead; 18 - compartment of the main propulsion electric motors and power plant; 19 - ballast tank; 20 - engine compartment; 21 - fuel tank; 22, 26 - aft and bow groups of batteries; 23, 27 - team living quarters; 24 - central post; 25 - hold of the central post; 28 - bow trim tank; 29 - end (bow) waterproof bulkhead; 30 - nasal extremity; 31 - buoyancy tank.

The structurally sound hull consists of frames and plating. The frames, as a rule, have an annular shape and an elliptical shape at the ends and are made of profile steel. They are installed one from the other at a distance of 300-700 mm, depending on the design of the boat, both on the inside and outside of the hull skin, and sometimes in combination on both sides closely.

The shell of the durable hull is made from special rolled sheet steel and welded to the frames. The thickness of the skin sheets reaches up to 35 mm, depending on the diameter of the pressure hull and the maximum immersion depth of the submarine.

Bulkheads and pressure hulls are strong and light. Strong bulkheads divide the internal volume of modern submarines into 6-10 waterproof compartments and ensure the ship's underwater unsinkability. According to their location, they are internal and terminal; in shape - flat and spherical.

Light bulkheads are designed to ensure the ship's surface unsinkability. Structurally, bulkheads are made of frames and sheathing. A bulkhead set usually consists of several vertical and transverse posts (beams). The casing is made of sheet steel.

End watertight bulkheads are usually of equal strength to the strong hull and close it in the bow and stern parts. These bulkheads serve as rigid supports for torpedo tubes on most submarines.

The compartments communicate through watertight doors having a round or rectangular shape. These doors are equipped with quick-release locking devices.

In the vertical direction, the compartments are divided by platforms into upper and lower parts, and sometimes the boat’s rooms have a multi-tier arrangement, which increases the useful area of ​​the platforms per unit volume. The distance between the platforms “in the light” is made more than 2 m, i.e., slightly greater than the average height of a person.

In the upper part of the durable hull there is a strong (combat) deckhouse, which communicates through the deckhouse hatch with the central post, under which the hold is located. On most modern submarines, a strong deckhouse is made in the form of a round cylinder of small height. On the outside, the strong cabin and the devices located behind it, to improve flow around when moving in a submerged position, are covered with lightweight structures called the cabin fencing. The deckhouse casing is made of sheet steel of the same grade as the robust hull. The torpedo-loading and access hatches are also located at the top of the durable hull.

Tank tanks are designed for diving, surfacing, trimming a boat, as well as for storing liquid cargo. Depending on the purpose, there are tanks: main ballast, auxiliary ballast, ship stores and special ones. Structurally, they are either durable, that is, designed for maximum immersion depth, or lightweight, capable of withstanding pressure of 1-3 kg/cm2. They are located inside the strong body, between the strong and light body and at the extremities.

Keel - a welded or riveted beam of box-shaped, trapezoidal, T-shaped, and sometimes semi-cylindrical section, welded to the bottom of the boat hull. It is designed to enhance longitudinal strength, protect the hull from damage when placed on rocky ground and placed on a dock cage.

Light hull (Fig. 1.22) - a rigid frame consisting of frames, stringers, transverse impenetrable bulkheads and plating. It gives the submarine a well-streamlined shape. The light hull consists of an outer hull, bow and stern ends, deck superstructure, and wheelhouse fencing. The shape of the light hull is completely determined by the outer contours of the ship.

Rice. 1.22. Cross section of a one-and-a-half-hull submarine:
1 - navigation bridge; 2 - conning tower; 3 - superstructure; 4 - stringer; 5 - surge tank; 6 - reinforcing stand; 7, 9 - booklets; 8- platform; 10 - box-shaped keel; 11 - foundation of main diesel engines; 12 - casing of a durable hull; 13 - strong hull frames; 14 - main ballast tank; 15 - diagonal racks; 16 - tank cover; 17 - light hull lining; 18 - light hull frame; 19 - upper deck

The ends of the light hull serve to streamline the contours of the bow and stern of the submarine and extend from the end bulkheads of the pressure hull to the stem and sternpost, respectively.

The bow end houses: bow torpedo tubes, main ballast and buoyancy tanks, a chain box, an anchor device, hydroacoustic receivers and emitters. Structurally, it consists of cladding and a complex set system. Made from sheet steel of the same quality as the outer casing.

The stem is a forged or welded beam that provides rigidity to the bow edge of the boat hull.

At the aft end (Fig. 1.23) there are located: aft torpedo tubes, main ballast tanks, horizontal and vertical rudders, stabilizers, propeller shafts with mortars.

Rice. 1.23. Diagram of stern protruding devices:
1 - vertical stabilizer; 2 - vertical steering wheel; 3 - propeller; 4 - horizontal steering wheel; 5 - horizontal stabilizer

Horizontal and vertical stabilizers provide stability to the submarine when moving. Propeller shafts pass through horizontal stabilizers (with a two-shaft power plant), at the ends of which propellers are installed. Aft horizontal rudders are installed behind the propellers in the same plane with the stabilizers.

Structurally, the aft end consists of a frame and plating. The set is made of stringers, frames and simple frames, platforms and bulkheads. The casing is of equal strength to the outer casing.

Superstructure(Fig. 1.24) is located above the upper waterproof stringer of the outer hull and extends along the entire length of the durable hull, passing beyond its limits at the tip. Structurally, the superstructure consists of sheathing and frame. The superstructure contains various systems, devices, bow horizontal rudders, etc.

Rice. 1.24. Submarine superstructure:
1 - booklets; 2 - holes in the deck; 3 - superstructure deck; 4 - side of the superstructure; 5 - scuppers; 6- pillers; 7 - tank cover; 8 - casing of a durable hull; 9 - strong hull frame; 10 - light hull lining; 11 - waterproof stringer of the outer casing; 12 - light hull frame; 13 - superstructure frame

Rice. 1.25. Retractable devices and systems of a submarine:
1 - periscope; 2 - radio antennas (retractable); 3 - radar antennas; 4 - air shaft for diesel operation under water (RDP); 5 - RDP exhaust device; 6 - radio antenna (collapsing)

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A submarine is a separate class of ships that are capable of diving to great depths and staying under water for a long time. Today, submarines are the main tactical weapons navy any state. Their main advantage is secrecy. This makes submarines indispensable in times of war.

History of creation: the beginning

For the first time, Leonardo da Vinci gave a practical answer to the question of what a submarine is. He described its military-tactical advantages and worked for a long time on a mock-up of the device, but in the end he burned all his mock-ups, fearing irreversible consequences.

In 1578, the English scientist W. Bourne in his report identified a certain submarine ship that he noticed in the depths of the Black Sea. The submarine described is nothing more than the first submarine made in Greenland from leather and seal skins. The ship had ballast tanks, and the exhaust pipe acted as a navigator. Such a submarine could not remain under water for a long time, but even then it showed amazing results.

The official project to create submarines became public only in 1620. Approval for construction was given by the English King James I. The Dutch engineer K. Drebbel undertook to construct the underwater vessel. Soon the boat was successfully tested in London. The engines of Britain's first submarine were oar-powered.

In Russia, the idea of ​​​​creating a hidden fleet was initiated. However, with his death, the project died in its infancy. In 1834, the first all-metal submarine appeared. Its inventor was the Russian engineer K. Schilder. The propulsion system was rowing devices. The tests were successful, and at the end of the year the world's first underwater missile was launched.

The American fleet could not stand by. In the 1850s, the project began under the leadership of L. Hanley. The boat was controlled from a separate compartment. The engine was a large propeller, which was spun by seven sailors. Observation took place through small protrusions in the body. In 1864, Hanley's first creation sank an enemy ship. Subsequently, Russia and France could boast of similar successes.

During World War I, submarines were equipped with diesel and electric engines. Russian engineers played a major role in the design of the new generation of submarines. During the war, 600 deep-sea vessels took part in the fighting, which ultimately sank about 200 ships and destroyers.

History of creation: a new era

By the time World War II began, the USSR had the largest number of submarines (211 units). In second place was the Italian flotilla - 115 submarines. Next were the USA, France, Britain, Japan and only then Germany with 57 deep-sea vessels. It is worth noting that the submarine was considered the main combat unit of the fleet during the war. This is also proven by the fact that the USSR dominated the surface of the sea and under it until the end of World War II. The submarines were to blame, which sank a total of more than 400 enemy ships.

At that time, submarines could dive up to 150 meters, staying under water for several hours. The average speed was about 6 knots. The revolution in underwater engineering was made by the famous scientist Walter. He designed a streamlined body and an engine powered by hydrogen peroxide. This allowed the submarines to overcome the speed barrier of 25 knots.

Submarines today

A modern submarine is a deep-sea vessel that uses nuclear power plants to obtain the necessary energy. The submarines are also equipped with batteries, diesel engines, Stirling engines and others. At the moment, the flotillas of 33 countries are rich in such combat units.

Back in the 1990s, NATO had 217 vessels in service, including SSBNs and submarines. At that time, Russia had just under 100 units on its balance sheet. In 2004, the Russian Federation ordered the creation of a small non-nuclear submarine from Italy. The project was called S1000. However, in 2014 he was frozen by mutual consent.

Today, hydrogen submarines are considered one of the fastest and most versatile submarines. These are deep-sea vessels of the U-212 class, which relatively recently began to be produced in Germany. Such boats operate on the basis of hydrogen, due to which maximum noiselessness of movement is achieved.

Classification of submarines

Submarines are usually divided into groups according to categories:

1. By type of energy source: nuclear, diesel, combined cycle, fuel, hydrogen.
2. By purpose: multi-purpose, strategic, specialized.
3. By size: cruising, medium, small.
4. By type of weapon: torpedo, ballistic, missile, mixed.

The most common deep-sea unit is the nuclear submarine. This type of submarine has its own classification:

1. SSBNs - nuclear submarines with ballistic weapons.
2. SSGN - nuclear submarines with cruise missiles.
3. MPLATRK - multi-purpose missile and torpedo submarines, the main source of energy for which is a nuclear reactor.
4. DPLRK - diesel submarines with missile and torpedo weapons.

Among the experimental types we can distinguish: flying, winged and river uninhabited submarine.

Design Basics

Submarines consist of two hulls: light and durable. The first is intended to give the ship improved hydrodynamic properties, and the second is to protect against high pressure water. The durable case is mounted from, but titanium alloys are also often found.

The submarine has special tanks for controlling trim and ballast. The dive is carried out using hydroplanes. Ascent is determined by the displacement of water by compressed air from ballast tanks. The ship is propelled by diesel or nuclear power plants. Small submarines run on batteries and electricity. Special diesel generators are used for recharging. Used as a motor

Types of weapons

The goal is to complete certain tasks:

Destroying warships
- liquidation of multi-purpose vessels,
- destruction of enemy strategic targets.

Depending on the targets, the corresponding types of weapons are installed on the submarines: mines, torpedoes, missiles, artillery mounts, radio electronics. For defense, many deep-sea ships use portable anti-aircraft systems.

Russian submarines

The Halibut submarines were among the last to enter service. The construction of 24 units took about 20 years, starting in 1982. Today Russia has 18 Halibut submarines at its disposal. The boats were built as part of Project 877. These deep-sea ships became the prototypes of the so-called “Varshavyanka”.

In 2004, the new generation Lada submarine was born, powered by an electric diesel installation. The ship is designed to destroy any enemy objects. These Russian submarines have become widespread due to their minimal noise level. Due to the high cost, the project was quickly cancelled.

The main striking force of the Russian flotilla is the nuclear submarine Shchuka-B. The project lasted more than 20 years until 2004. Today, there are 11 submarines of this type in service with the Russian Federation. “Pike-B” is capable of reaching a speed of 33 knots, diving to 600 m and maintaining autonomous navigation for up to 100 days. Capacity - 73 people. The construction of one unit cost the treasury about 785 million dollars.

Also in the fleet's arsenal are such Russian nuclear submarines as Akula, Dolphin, Barracuda, Kalmar, Antey and others.

The latest submarines

In the near future, the Russian Navy will be replenished with new units of the Varshavyanka series. These will be the newest submarines “Krasnodar” and “Stary Oskol”. The boats will enter service in the second half of 2015. The deep-sea ships “Kolpino” and “Veliky Novgorod” are at the docks, but their construction will only end by the end of 2016. As a result, the balance sheet Black Sea Fleet there will be 6 units of the Varshavyanka project.

Representatives of this series are designed to counter enemy attacks, that is, to protect naval bases, communications, and the coast. The Varshavyanka submarines are classified as silent submarines. Powered by an electric diesel engine.

The length of such a submarine is 74 m and its width is 10 m. Underwater, the ship can reach a speed of 20 knots. The diving threshold is 300 m. The voyage period is up to 45 days.

Missing and sunken submarines

Until the 1940s, submarines were constantly lost in the abyss of the seas and oceans. The reasons for this were design flaws, oversights by the commanding staff, and secret military actions of opponents.

After the Second World War, missing submarines are counted in just a few. Over the past 50 years, engineering has reached its peak. Since the early 1950s, submarines were no longer considered dangerous to the lives of the crew, and any contact with the enemy was immediately recorded by the military base. This is why there have been so few lost submarines in recent decades.

The most famous missing ships are the Scorpion (USA), Dakkar (Israel) and Minerva (France). It is noteworthy that all 3 sunken submarines crashed under strange circumstances within 2 weeks of 1968. The reports of all 3 disasters mentioned an unidentified object, after contact with which contact with the crew was lost forever.

In total, over the past 60 years, 8 sunken nuclear submarines have been officially recorded, including 6 Russian and 2 American. The first was the ship "Thresher" (USA), which had 129 people on board. The disaster occurred as a result of an enemy attack in 1963. The entire crew died.

The most sensational and tragic is the fate of the Kursk submarine. In the summer of 2000, due to a torpedo explosion in the first compartment, the ship sank to the bottom of the Barents Sea. As a result, 118 people died.

Submarine refers to a special class of warships that have the ability to swim underwater, maneuvering along the course and depth. As a physical object, it obeys Archimedes' law: a body immersed in a liquid is acted upon by a force directed upward and equal to the weight of the liquid displaced by it. This " lifting force» can be controlled by changing the weight of the boat. To submerge the submarine, sea water is taken into its ballast tanks. In order for the boat to float, they are dried by blowing with compressed air. Therefore, a submarine ship has two displacements - surface (normal) and underwater. A boat at considerable depth experiences enormous pressure. Its body, including habitable spaces and main mechanisms, has a cylindrical shape and is made of thick high-quality steel or titanium alloy with stiffeners. It is called a rugged case. To improve the seaworthiness of the boat, a lightweight hull is placed on top of the durable one. In between them there are usually ballast tanks and fuel tanks. This type of boat is called a double-hulled boat. If the light hull does not completely surround the strong one, it is classified as a one-and-a-half-hull ship. There are also single-hull boats. To increase the survivability of the submarine, its durable hull is divided by transverse waterproof bulkheads into several autonomous compartments (from three to ten). The boat is suspended under water. Its movement up and down is controlled by horizontal bow and stern rudders. When the leading edge of the rudder blade is higher than the trailing edge, the oncoming water flow creates lift. If, on the contrary, the oncoming flow presses on the working plane of the pen from top to bottom. A stationary boat is uncontrollable and must either float to the surface or, having gained additional ballast, lie down on the ground. The movement of a submarine forward or backward, like any ship, depends on which direction the propeller rotates. Turning left - right is carried out by changing the position of the vertical rudder in the stern. Submarines are divided into diesel-electric and nuclear. The disadvantage of the former is the limited time spent under water. Their main engine is a diesel engine running on diesel fuel and requires a constant supply of oxygen. Therefore, it is usually used only for surface navigation. Underwater, the boat moves on electric motors powered by batteries. The battery capacity is small, and the boat periodically has to surface to recharge them with a diesel generator. Since the Second World War, there has been a device for operating a diesel engine underwater at shallow depths - a snorkel. Simply put, it is a pipe that extends to the surface to take in air. The valve prevents water from entering the system. An uncovered snorkel has caused the death of more than one submarine. A nuclear reactor without replenishing uranium reserves can continuously produce energy for years. The water, turned into steam by its heat, rotates steam turbine. That, in turn, moves the boat and generates electric current through a turbogenerator. Using the enormous energy resources of nuclear power, it is easy to obtain air from seawater, which is always so scarce on submarines. Control of the submarine is concentrated in the central post, located in the middle part of the hull under the conning tower. Retractable devices pass through it or nearby. The most important of them is the periscope, which allows you to observe the situation at sea from under the water. When it is raised, the head with the lens protrudes above the water. Through a system of lenses and prisms, the image is transmitted inside the boat. The periscope depth does not exceed several meters. A ship located deeper can only navigate using hydroacoustic means. Until the second half of the twentieth century, the shape of the boat hull was more suitable for swimming on the surface, since they submerged for a relatively short time. Modern submarines, on the contrary, are primarily adapted to underwater hydrodynamics. Their native element is the world of silence.

It is important for every organization to properly price what it offers. For this purpose, various pricing methods are used to most accurately determine the price of goods and services.

Basic Pricing Principles

Basic principles are the rules for forming the cost of goods that will apply to any method used:

• Prices are close to labor costs in production.
• The cost must be such that the enterprise’s income ensures normal production conditions.
• When setting prices, you need to focus on complex indicators: the level of demand, competitors’ offers, the ratio of world prices.

When making calculations, the characteristics of the product and its quality are taken into account.

Full cost method

The full cost method is the most commonly used method. It involves adding a premium to the unit cost of goods. The size of the latter depends on the established level of profit characteristic of a particular production. The allowance includes the following components:

• Enterprise profit.
• Other taxes.
• Various duties.

The main advantage of the method is simplicity. However, when calculating, a premium is applied in solid form, and therefore the result is not always accurate. Such pricing does not take into account all factors of changes in the cost of a product: competitors’ prices for similar products and current demand.

Let's consider the advantages of the method:

• Most large industries know more about their costs than about the demand for their products, and therefore this method will be very convenient.
• This is the most best option to calculate prices for products for which demand remains stable.
• The method is used by most enterprises, including competitors, which ensures approximately the same prices for the product line. This reduces competition on the cost factor.

The method also has disadvantages:

• Consumers may not buy a product at the calculated cost, since the calculations do not take into account other indicators: demand and the actions of competitors.
• This is a method in which company management costs play a role, rather than production costs, which makes it conditional and biased in finding indicators of the product’s contribution to the organization’s income.

The method is commonly used by large food processing plants. It is optimal for selling goods with low competitiveness. These are products of mass demand that are always bought: bread, milk, etc.

Example

The company sells chairs. The planned production coverage per year is 10,000 chairs. The cost of raw materials per unit of goods is equal to a thousand rubles, direct labor costs are 400 rubles. The planned amount of annual expenses is 2,000,000 rubles, income is 4,000,000 rubles. The following calculations are carried out:

• 2,000,000 + 4,000,000 = 6 million rubles.
• 6 million/10,000 = 600 rubles.
• 400 + 1,000 = 1,400 rubles.
• 600 + 1,400 = 2,000 rub.

2,000 rubles is the optimal price for one chair.

ROI method

The return on investment method allows you to take into account the cost of monetary resources. Its basis is costs. The method is optimal for enterprises with a large assortment of goods. It allows you to reduce through the effective use of available resources, as well as increase profits by increasing production. However, the method is used quite rarely, due to labor-intensive calculations.

Example

The planned production volume is 40 thousand units, variable costs for one product – 35 rubles. Overall volume fixed costs– 700,000 rubles. To set up production, a loan of one million rubles is taken out at 17% per annum. The following calculations are made:

• 700 thousand/40 thousand – 17.5 rubles. (constant expenses per unit).
• 35 + 17.5 = 52.5 rub. (total expenses).
• (Million * 0.17) / 40 thousand = 4.25 rubles / unit.
• 35 + 17.5 + 4.25 = 56.75 rub.

The last indicator is the minimum cost of the product at which the company will receive income and also maintain its creditworthiness.

Marketing assessment method

The essence of the marketing evaluation method is a preliminary determination of the cost at which the consumer will buy the product. The basis of calculations is sales growth and increasing the competitiveness of products, and not covering production costs.

Example

The elasticity of demand is 1.75. The manager is faced with the task of calculating the consequences of reducing the cost by a ruble. At the moment, 10,000 units of goods are being sold at a cost of 17.5. Total expenses amount to 100,000 rubles (of which constant expenses amount to 20,000 rubles). The following calculations are carried out:

• 17.5 * 100,000 = 175,000 rub. (revenue).
• 175,000 – 100,000 = 75,000 rubles. (profit).
• 10,000 * (1.75 * 1/17.5) + 10,000 = 11,000 pieces (sales scale).

The figures are then calculated after the cost has been reduced:

• 16.5 * 11,000 = 181,500 rubles. (revenue).
• Fixed costs: 20,000 rub.
• Variables: (100,000 – 20,000)/10,000) * 11 thousand = 88,000 rub.
• General: 20,000 + 88,000 = 108,000 rub.
• 181,500 – 108,000 = 73,500 rubles.

The price decrease provoked a loss of profit in the amount of 1,500 rubles (75,000 - 73,500).

Other pricing methods

There are many pricing methods. The ones outlined above are the main and most frequently used. However, there are many other ways:

• Sealed bidding method. In a closed auction, the order is awarded to the one who sets the lowest price. This principle affects pricing. The contractor must set a minimum cost at which income will ensure the functioning of the company.
• The skimming method. Typically used when pricing new items. First, the manufacturer sets the highest possible price. At the same time, demand indicators are monitored. As soon as they begin to decline, the price is reduced to attract a new “wave” of consumers.”
• Manufacturing cost method. It is a complement to the full cost method. When calculating, expenses on raw materials are multiplied by a percentage equal to the company’s contribution to increasing product prices. The method can be used to determine the profitability of products. Relevant when working with individual orders.
• Marginal cost method. Variable costs per unit are multiplied by a percentage sufficient to cover the enterprise's expenses and generate profit. The purpose of using this method is to fully cover costs and maximize profits.

NOTE! The use of these methods is usually situational.

Which pricing method should you choose?

The required method is selected based on conditions such as:

• Demand for products (stable or unstable).
• Behavior of competitors.
• Mass production of goods.
• The purpose of pricing (maximizing profits, attracting consumers, introducing into a new market).
• The level of enterprise costs in production.
• Scope of work.

Some of the methods (for example, the manufacturing cost method) can be used inconsistently, but situationally, if there is an immediate need.

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