Snip tram tracks. Why is the railway track in Russia wider? Domestic rail transport

A tram is a type of urban public rail transport, mainly electric. In fact, the tram is a railway that has some features. However, in Russia (formerly in the USSR), trams are traditionally considered separately from other railways. Moreover, it is often not recognized as a railway.
In the author’s personal opinion, there are no reasonable reasons for “separating” the tram from other types of railway. A tram is a railway that has significant features (including the possibility of laying lines along city streets at the same level as the road surface, the possibility of having ultra-small radius curves).
Until the beginning of the twentieth century, the term “tram” was little known in Russia - instead the term “urban railway” was used, which remained the most common until 1917.
Most of the tram systems existing in our country have a broad gauge - 1524 mm (the standard gauge width on the main railway is 1520 mm, but for the movement of rolling stock the difference of 4 millimeters is insignificant). However, narrow gauge tram networks are also operational.
As of 2007, in space former USSR There are nine narrow-gauge tram networks. On eight of them the track width is 1000 mm, on one (in Tallinn) - 1067 mm. The tram network of Rostov-on-Don (1435 mm gauge), sometimes mistakenly classified as narrow gauge, cannot be recognized as such. This network has a non-standard (for Russia) wide gauge.
At one time, narrow-gauge tram networks also existed in many other cities. In most of them they were converted to wide gauge. The reconstruction to broad gauge was carried out with the aim of unifying the tram with mainline railways and was explained primarily by strategic considerations (the possibility of using tram lines for freight transport in case of hostilities). Broad gauge tram lines were often used as “freight” sidings in peacetime.
At present, there is virtually no doubt that the reconstruction of tram lines to broad gauge was a wrong step. As a result, the area occupied by tram lines has increased, and the costs of their construction and maintenance have increased. Almost all narrow gauge tram cars now have the same dimensions as broad gauge tram cars and can accommodate the same number of passengers.
The reconstruction of tram networks to broad gauge was carried out in different ways: from the complete temporary mothballing of the tram system and large-scale work to replace tracks - to the construction of new broad gauge lines while the old, “narrow” ones continued to be used. In Odessa and Tashkent, the coexistence of wide and narrow gauge tram lines continued for many decades. In Smolensk, completely destroyed during the years of the Great Patriotic War The tram system was actually built anew - with a wide gauge.
In almost all cities, broad gauge tram lines appeared after narrow gauge ones. There were few exceptions to this rule. One of them is Kyiv: 9 years after the first electric tram in Russia, which had a standard gauge of 1524 mm, appeared on the city streets, a meter-gauge line was built in Kyiv, running along Brest-Litovsky Avenue (now Pobeda Avenue). She belonged private company, which was not interested in merging it with the rest of the network.
In Nizhny Novgorod in 1896, three tram networks of competing companies were opened at once: with a gauge of 1524 mm, 1000 mm and 750 mm.
From 1895 to 1910, seasonal 1000 mm gauge electric tram lines were laid in St. Petersburg on the ice of the Neva River. In winter, carriages transported passengers from one bank to the other. The first “permanent” electric tram line running along city streets opened in the Russian capital only in 1907. The city had an extensive network of broad-gauge horse-drawn trams (“horse-drawn trams”), so it also used broad gauge.
List of urban electrified railway (tram) networks with 1000 mm gauge (in parentheses the year of opening of electric traffic, appearance of the first broad gauge line, cessation of operation of the last narrow gauge line is indicated):
Tver (1901, 1929, 1930), Kyiv (1901, 1892, 1923), Astrakhan (1900, 1952, 1959), Vitebsk (1898, 1933, 1937), Vladivostok (1912, 1934, 1934), Vladikavkaz (1904, 1934, 1936), Dnepropetrovsk (1897, 1932, 1948), Krasnodar (1900, 1934, 1949), Nizhny Novgorod (1896, 1896, 1928), Odessa (1907, 1933, 1976), Eagle (1889, 1938, 1941), Pskov(presumably the first horse-drawn tram line opened in 1909, replaced in 1912 by a broad-gauge electric tram line), Samara(1895 - the horse-drawn tram of 1000 mm gauge was opened, 1915 - the first electric tram line of 1524 mm gauge was opened, 1917 - the horse-drawn tram of 1000 mm gauge was closed), Smolensk (1901, 1944, 1947), Tashkent (1912, 1936, 1971), Kharkiv (1906, 1927, 1930), Nikolaev (1914, 1952, 1972).
Tula. The first horse-drawn tram line opened in 1888. The tram network operated until 1919, but was not electrified. Since then, there was no tram service in the city until 1927, when the first electrified broad gauge line opened.
In 10 cities, 1000 mm gauge tram lines were eliminated without being replaced by broad gauge lines. This Vyborg(the tram operated in 1912-1957), Ķemeri, now part of the city Jurmala (1912-1935), Kirovograd (1897-1941), Kishinev (1914-1961), Klaipeda (1904-1934), Sevastopol (1898-1942), Simferopol (1914-1970), Tilsit(now Sovetsk, Kaliningrad region) (1901-1944), Staraya Russa , Novgorod region (1924-1941), Chernivtsi (1897–1967).
In the city of Kislovodsk (Stavropol Territory), from 1904 to 1966 (?) there was an electrified narrow-gauge railway with a gauge of 1000 mm (according to other sources - 750 mm or 780 mm), on which tram cars, converted for the transportation of goods, operated. This narrow-gauge railway can hardly be considered a tram - there was no passenger traffic on it.
There were “non-traditional” systems with a narrower gauge:
Yerevan. In 1906-1918, a horse-drawn passenger railway (“horse horse”) with a gauge of 900 mm (914 mm?) operated. After 1918, there was no rail transport in the city for 14 years - until 1933, when the broad gauge electric tram line was opened.
Tbilisi. From 1893 to 1910, a 900 mm (914 mm?) horse-drawn tram line operated. In 1904, the first electric tram line with a 1000 mm gauge appeared. The first broad gauge tram line opened in 1934. Since 1942, only broad-gauge trams have operated in the city.
Nizhny Novgorod. In 1896, almost simultaneously with the 1524 mm and 1000 mm gauge tram networks, a 750 mm gauge tram line was opened. It had the character of an experimental excursion, and ran through the territory of the All-Russian Art, Trade and Industrial Exhibition. The line had a closed ring configuration with a length of about 3,700 meters, and a lower current collector was used. Most likely, the line did not last long.
There are references to the existence of a narrow gauge tram also in Rostov Veliky (1902-1921), Yeisk (1915–1918), Irbit (1926–1933), Murmansk (1918–1935), Penza(1935-1937), as well as in some other cities. There is very little information on these systems.
It is known with a reasonable degree of certainty that urban narrow-gauge railways operated in Murmansk and Penza. railways, which used motor traction, a city narrow-gauge railway operated in Yeisk, which used steam traction. In Irbit (Sverdlovsk region), Rostov Veliky ( Yaroslavl region), most likely a passenger horse-drawn railway (“horse-drawn”) was used, perhaps not a narrow-gauge one.
There is no exact definition of the concept “tram”, so the answer to the question of whether narrow-gauge railways with steam or motor traction can be called a tram cannot be found (there are different opinions). Passenger horse-drawn railways are considered in various sources to be a tram or a “predecessor” of a tram.
The newest 1000 mm gauge tram system was created in 1989 and is located in the village of Molochnoye (outskirts of the city of Evpatoria). The tram line connects the Beregovoy boarding house with the beach on the Black Sea coast. Her appearance was made possible thanks to the presence nearby large network in Evpatoria, where the rolling stock was taken from (2 cars; another 2 cars were delivered from Zhitomir). The length of the line is 1.5 kilometers. It operates only during the holiday season, transporting vacationers to the beach.
In terms of the number of passengers transported, tram networks take first place, far surpassing all other narrow-gauge railways combined. At present, urban public transport is in a difficult situation. Nevertheless, there is every reason to believe that the current networks of urban narrow-gauge roads have a great future.

A tram track is an engineering structure that includes structural elements: a top structure, a base or lower structure, a subgrade, as well as drainage structures and road surfaces. The construction of a tram track begins with the preparation of the roadbed, which is made in the form of a longitudinal pit when placing the track on the roadway of streets, or embankments and excavations when placing the track on a separate track. A base consisting of under-rail supports and ballast is laid on the roadbed. Under-rail supports are made of sleepers, longitudinal tracks or frame structures. Sand, crushed stone or gravel are used as ballast materials. The upper structure of the track consists of rails, special parts (turnouts, crosses and intersections), fasteners used to connect the rails with under-rail supports (linings, overlays, crutches, bolts, screws, ties, etc.), electrical connections. Drainage structures are used to remove rain and groundwater. The road surface is laid between the tracks and outside the rails when the tram track is located on the carriageway of the streets. The road surface is made of asphalt concrete, reinforced concrete slabs, cobblestones or paving stones.

In the plan of the street relative to its axis, tram tracks are placed in the center of the roadway, and if there is a boulevard, along its edges. On one-way streets, major highways and embankments, tram tracks are laid along one side of the roadway. It is preferable to lay tram tracks on a surface isolated from other road traffic, which is not always possible due to the lack of free land. In the cities of Volgograd, Ust-Ilimsk, Izhevsk and Stary Oskol, high-speed tram lines have been built, running mainly along an isolated road surface and having artificial structures (overpasses, tunnels) at intersections with traffic flows. Light rail is very effective because at moderate costs and short duration construction work in terms of speed and carrying capacity it approaches the metro.

According to their purpose, tram tracks are divided into operational (tram routes pass along these tracks), temporary (laid for the period of repair work) and service (tracks in the territories of tram depots and connecting tracks between the depot and operational tracks). Operational tracks are usually double-tracked. Single-track operational tracks are laid in cramped areas where it is impossible to organize double-track traffic.

The main structural dimension of a rail track is the track width, measured by the distance between the working edges of the rail heads perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the track. On straight sections, the normal gauge is 1524 mm (corresponds to the Russian railway gauge standard). To ensure the movement of cars on curves, the track width increases slightly in accordance with the radius of the curve. On double-track sections, it is necessary to ensure the passage of oncoming cars, for which a certain size of the track between the tracks is maintained, determined by the overall width of the cars (2600 mm) and the normal gap between their sides (600 mm). In the absence of central supports for contact wires on the inter-track, the minimum width of the inter-track on straight lines is 3200 mm (the normal width of the inter-track with a margin is taken equal to 3,550 mm; in Moscow, the inter-track is usually designed equal to 3,424 mm, in St. Petersburg - 3,758 mm), and in the presence of such supports -3550 mm. In this case, the actual width of the intertrack is measured between the axes of parallel tracks. In operational practice, to simplify measurements, the track width is measured between the working edges of the internal rails, which is less than the specified standard dimensions by a track width of 1524 mm, from which the minimum track width with a simplified definition is at least 1676 mm, and normally - 2026 mm.

In general, the width, m, of the tram track on straight sections, depending on the type of track, must comply with the following standards:

Double-track track on a separate track with landing

platforms and planting strips between the tracks and the roadways of the streets..... 9.60

Double-track track on a separate track without

Landing pads with central suspension of contact wire……… 7.35

The same, with transverse suspension..................................................……… ……………….. 7.00

Double-track track at the same level as the roadway ………………… 6.60

Single track at the same level as the roadway of the street…………………... 3.40

The same, on a separate canvas....................................... …………… …………….3.80

Since the tram car is deprived of the ability to maneuver relative to the axis of the track, during operation it is important to ensure the normal distance of various objects from the car. The norms for such distances are set by the approach dimensions of buildings (Fig.), which represents the maximum outline of the contour in a vertical plane perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the path, into which structures, buildings and other objects located along the path should not go. This dimension is determined on the basis of the dimensions of the tram car, which represents a contour similar in construction, in which a serviceable car should be placed (taking into account its possible swinging on the springs when moving). Checking that the approach clearance of buildings is maintained is carried out in motion using a circuit model placed on a special tram service car.

Rice. Dimensions for the approach of buildings (structures) to the tram track: 1 and 2 - respectively, the maximum and minimum heights of overhead wire suspension; 3 - distance to the boulevard fence; 4- distance to the edge of the sidewalk; 5 - distance to non-residential buildings, structures, fences, etc.; 6- distance to the external surface of buildings

The location of the tram track relative to the street is determined by its plan, longitudinal and transverse profiles.

In plan, tram tracks are made of straight or curved sections and nodes (connections, intersections, plexuses, end points). Drawings of tram tracks in plan are made on scales of 1:500, 1:1000, 1:2000, indicating the contours of the rails and all nearby structures along the route (indicating their distance from the axis of the track).

Curved sections of the track along the radius in plan are divided into small ones, with a radius of 20-75 m; medium - 76-200 m and large - over 200 m. As an exception, it is allowed to reduce the radius in cramped conditions to 18 m. The maximum radius of the curve is 2000 m. The minimum length of the arc is 8 m. To prevent strong shocks when the car is moving from straight to the curved section includes transition curves that smoothly “translate” a straight line into an arc of constant radius: with a curve radius of up to 50 m - with an initial radius of 210 m; with a radius of 50-75 m - with an initial radius of 420 m (Fig.).

Tram line nodes (Fig.) are made from a combination of elements of a normal (straight) track and special parts of the track - turnouts, crosses, intersections, etc. In order to unify the special parts, the transfer curves are 20 m, 30 m or 50 m. Turnouts are subdivided on the left (the branch goes to the left, if you look at the straight path in the opposite direction of the arrow), right and symmetrical (diverge to the right and left in arcs). Intersections are divided into straight (at right angles), oblique (angle less than 90°), single curvature (one of the paths at the intersection passes along an arc), double curvature (both paths pass along an arc). The arrows are switched by electromagnets. If necessary, crossings of tram tracks are allowed only with secondary railway tracks at an angle of at least 45° in agreement with the owners of these railway tracks and providing sufficient visibility and the installation of barriers at the crossing point. In narrow passages and on bridges, there are plexes of double tracks, in which the internal rails intersect.

At the ends of tram lines, reversible loops with a radius of 20-50 m are installed, designed to transfer cars from one direction of travel to the opposite direction (Fig.). With several routes, especially with different traffic intervals, the loops are made multi-track. This ensures independent dispatch of tram cars on each route. When planning conditions make it impossible to construct a loop, a triangle is used, the disadvantage of which is the need for the cars to move in reverse when maneuvering. To park tram cars at terminal points, in addition to loops, dead ends are installed. In exceptional cases, terminal points may be dead-end, but this requires equipping each unit of rolling stock with two driver's cabins and passenger doors on both sides of the tram.

Rice. Geometry of elements of tram track transition curves with initial radii of 210 m (a) and 420 m (b)

In tram depots (see subsection 4.4), the rail tracks have many branches, which makes it possible to compactly store cars and move them to maintenance and repair stations. The entry and exit routes from the tram depot are separated. Provide alternate entry and exit routes to avoid possible unexpected traffic congestion.

In one or more places on the tram track, it is connected (gate) with the railway tracks, which makes it possible to deliver various material and technical resources arriving by rail to tram enterprises, including the transfer of tram cars, rails and other large items.

The longitudinal profile of the tram track is designed in accordance with the same profile of the street. Longitudinal slopes should not exceed: 90% for single cars, 80% for two-car trains, and 60% for three-car trains. In exceptional cases, it is allowed to increase the specified slopes by 10%. In such cases, a technical stop is provided before a section with an increased slope to check the serviceability of the brakes and slowly drive up the slope. For traffic safety, units and their special parts are designed on slopes of no more than 40%. Before intersections, horizontal platforms or sections with a slope of no more than 2.5% and a length of at least 15 m outside the connecting vertical curve are arranged. Two adjacent sections with a slope difference of more than 7%o are connected in the vertical plane by curves with a radius of 500-2000 m.

Rice. Tram nodes: a - single turnouts; b - single-track branches; c - double-track branches; d - intersection of a single path; d - intersection of a double path with a single one; e - intersection of a double path; g - double transfers

Between vertical curves bent into different sides, provide a direct insert 7 m long. A direct insert of the same length is provided between turnouts directed

In different directions (for high-speed tram lines, this insert must be at least 10 m). There must be a section of at least 20 m between adjacent fracture points of the longitudinal profile. On approaches to artificial structures (bridge, tunnel), the profile fracture must be at least 5 m from the beginning of the span.

Rice. Some options for constructing turnaround points on a tram track: a - dead-end; b - triangle; c - ring; g - ring with a dead end; d - loop; e - loop with two dead ends; g - double ring; z - triple loop

Cross profile The tram track, when located on the axis of the roadway, is designed in such a way that the head of the right rail is located 10 mm below the head of the left rail (transverse slope 6.7%o), which ensures the drainage of rainwater from the roadway. However, on straight sections without road surface and in the area where special parts are located, the rail heads must be located at the same level. On curves in plan, the outer rail relative to the center of rotation is placed above the inner rail at the following elevation, mm, taking into account the radius of the curve, m:

Regular Heavy areas in one Heavy areas

level sections with passage on a separate road surface

Up to 50 70 100 150

51 – 100 70 80 120

101 – 250 50 60 90

251 – 500 40 40 40

501 – 1000 30 30 30

When located on the roadway of streets, the rail heads of the tram track on straight sections are located at the same level as the roadway surface. On a separate tram track, the rail heads protrude 150-250 mm above the surface level.

For drainage on straight sections of the tram track, on curved sections with concave fractures, drainage boxes are placed at least every 200-250 m. The boxes are installed under the holes drilled in the grooves of the rails. The same boxes are installed under the turnouts. Drainage is installed along the entire line to drain water that has penetrated into the base of the track. Drainage may not be installed in sandy soils and on slopes of more than 35%.

Stopping points on tram routes should be located outside the area of special track parts and sectional insulators of the contact network

For the tram track, special tram or railway rails are used. Tram rails are distinguished by the presence of a groove and have the letter designation TV, after which the specific weight of the rail is indicated (in kg/m). TV-60 rails are used for straight sections of the track, and TV-65 (reinforced) for curves. In isolated areas in the absence of road surfaces, R-43 railway rails are used. The rails are produced in lengths of 12.5 and 25 m. Before laying on curves, the rails are bent on special machines according to the theoretical drawing. Rails are replaced as they wear out physically. Fracture of a tram track rail is relatively rare due to low operating loads.

Maintenance, preventive examinations and Maintenance the tram track is assigned to the service of the track. In cities that have one tram or trolleybus-tram enterprise, the track service is created as structural unit such an enterprise. If there are several tram depots, the track service functions can be transferred to a specialized unitary enterprise for track maintenance. In organizational and spatial terms, the tram track facilities are divided into track distances. For each distance representing a production unit, tram tracks and production and technological equipment are assigned. The distance paths are divided into sections or neighborhoods, serviced by teams of workers.

Failures in track facilities lead, as a rule, to the cessation of traffic on routes passing through the corresponding section. Therefore, in order to promptly carry out repairs along the route, emergency crews of track workers are organized to be on duty. The most common violation in track facilities is derailment of cars. Jacks and other special equipment are used to place the car on the rails.

Compliance of the path with the requirements technical requirements controlled with manual devices and with the help of measuring and recording equipment installed on track measuring cars. Track laying and repairs are carried out using road construction equipment and special cars.

The tracks are cleared of snow and debris using special cars equipped with plow cleaners, augers and mechanically driven drum-type sweepers. Cleaning equipment on a car chassis is also used (combined cleaning and washing machines used in public utilities). On longitudinal slopes, sand is used to prevent cars from skidding along the rails. A supply of sand is kept in boxes at the end stations of the routes and on the route routes before the start of sections with steep longitudinal slopes. To prevent ice freezing of moving parts of turnouts, intersections and crosses, local heating is used.

Lecture: Energy management

Energy economy (energy economy) GPT is a complex of technical means that provide rolling stock with energy for traction and auxiliary needs. The composition and structure of the energy sector, as well as its management, significantly depend on the type of energy used.

Buses use motor fuel, the main type of which is diesel fuel, which differs depending on the fractional composition into summer (L), winter (3) and arctic (A). Summer diesel fuel is used at ambient temperatures above 0 °C, winter - at temperatures up to -20 °C, arctic - up to -50 °C. Some buses, mainly of especially small and low passenger capacity classes, run on gasoline. Gasoline varies by brand according to its octane number, and is also available in summer and winter. Gasoline grades A-76, A-91, AI-93 and AI-95, established by the canceled GOST 2084-77, are still used, and in parallel, a transition is being made to gasoline grades according to the new GOST R 51105-97, developed in accordance with European requirements for quality and environmental friendliness of fuel: AI-80 (Normal), AI-91 (Regular), AI-95 (Premium) and AI-98 (Super). A promising GOST R 51866-2002 has been prepared.

For increase octane number Previously, special gasoline additives that were strong poisons were widely used (for example, tetraethyl lead - leaded gasoline). Therefore, such gasoline was colored by adding special dyes. Currently, the production of leaded gasoline is prohibited. The greatest fuel efficiency and minimum environmental damage is ensured by the use of gas as a motor fuel. Any gasoline engine can be adapted to run on gas. Gas fuel is divided into compressed natural gas (the main component is methane) and liquefied petroleum gas (a mixture of propane or propylene with butane or butylene with the addition of a small amount of methane, ethane or ethylene). The range of a city bus running on compressed gas is less than on liquefied gas, but is sufficient to operate all day without refueling. Liquefied gas of the SPBTL brand is used in the summer, and SPBTZ in the winter.

Refueling of buses with diesel fuel and gasoline is carried out at automobile filling stations (gas stations), with compressed natural gas - at automobile gas compressor stations (AGCS), and refueling with liquefied gas - at automobile gas filling stations (AGNS). These gas stations are operated by organizations and entrepreneurs that are economically and organizationally separate from GPT organizations. According to the current procedure, refueling of route buses with motor fuel is carried out outside the general queue. To ensure rhythm of work when scheduling buses along routes, refueling runs are provided. The schedule of such flights is coordinated with the managers of the relevant gas stations, gas filling stations and gas filling stations. With a large number of buses in use, it becomes economically profitable to build your own refueling complex in the ATO. This allows you to pay for motor fuel at wholesale prices and sell it externally as a source of additional income. The construction of such a filling complex is possible if there is an appropriate territory suitable for this and obtaining necessary permits. Water is currently being considered as a promising motor fuel, from which hydrogen can be extracted using fuel cells.

The power supply of the GNET rolling stock (Fig.) is carried out by transmitting electricity on board vehicle via contact wires located along the route routes. Electricity is supplied to the contact wires by power cables from traction substations. Traction substations are used to generate direct current and are powered by electricity from the national power grid.

The voltage in the trolleybus contact network is 550+1™ V DC with a minus on the left wire along the trolleybus. The tram contact network uses the same voltage with the positive polarity of the contact wire. The electric current is supplied to the positive contact wire of the trolleybus and then through the current collector and the rod is supplied to the traction motor, and is also used to power the auxiliary electrical installations of the trolleybus. The current is returned to the traction substation in the reverse order through another contact wire.

The metal parts of the trolleybus body are not grounded, and therefore must be reliably isolated from networks electrically connected to contact wires. To power the traction motor and auxiliary units of the tram car, electricity is supplied from the contact wire to a pantograph-type current collector.

Rice. Schemes for the power supply of the GPT and the removal of stray currents: a - power supply of the tram; b - trolleybus power supply; c - diagram of the passage of stray currents; 1-high voltage input; 2- traction substation; 3 - power cable; 4 - suction cable; 5 - contact wires; 6-rail track; 7- GNET vehicle; 8- underground metal structures (pipelines, fittings, etc.); I-III respectively cathodic, neutral and anodic zones

Pantographs ensure reliable clamping of the current collector to the contact wire at speeds above 50 km/h. Further, having passed through the electric motor, the current enters the car body and goes into the rail track electrically connected to the body. The rail track is grounded, which ensures electrical safety. Thus, the rail track serves as a negative conductor. However, it is impossible to use the rail track to directly return current to the traction substation for reasons of high contact resistance in sections of the rail track and the occurrence of stray currents (see below). Therefore, suction cables are electrically connected to the rails, through which the current returns to the traction substation.

Traction substations are supplied with alternating three-phase electric current with a voltage of 6-10 kV via the main and reserve inputs. Step-down transformers reduce the voltage to 600 V and power the thyristor rectifiers. Rectifiers convert alternating current to direct current. The traction substation has several transformers and rectifiers, which ensures reliable operation in case of equipment failures. Switching of electrical circuits at the substation is provided by distribution devices. For the substation's own needs (lighting, powering power tools, etc.), there are transformers that reduce the voltage to 380/220 V AC. Modern traction substations operate automatically or have telemechanical control.

The power supply system is organized according to centralized or decentralized principles. With a centralized principle, serviced urban area divided into separate zones with a radius of 1.5-3.5 km. A traction substation is being built approximately in the center of the zone. This substation is connected by a cable network to various sections of tram and trolleybus routes passing within the zone. The electrical power of a substation is determined based on the possible number of trolleybuses and tram cars operating simultaneously within the corresponding zone. For outbound tram and trolleybus lines, when movement is carried out along fairly long sections of track that run far from other routes, a decentralized principle of placing traction substations along the route approximately every 1-1.5 km is used. Such substations have lower electrical power and are located near the contact network, which makes it possible to make cable lines extremely short. It is advisable to locate decentralized traction substations at the junction of two sections of the contact network, which makes it possible to supply electricity to both such sections from one substation.

Cable lines connecting traction substations with the contact network are located mainly underground in trenches (buried at least 700 mm from the surface), pipes or collectors. In the supply and suction networks, cables with a cross-section of 120-500 mm 2 are used for voltages up to 1 kV with additional control cores for transmitting control signals. For power inputs supplying traction substations, three-core armored cables for a voltage of 1-10 kV with a cross-section of each core of 35-240 mm 2 are used. As a rule, cable lines are laid near the sidewalks along the contact network supports no closer than 0.6 m from the building line.

The contact network consists of contact wires, transverse and longitudinal wire and cable hangers connected to the contact wires through double insulators, supports with crossbars, fastening fittings, tension devices and special parts that ensure the passage of rolling stock pantographs in branches, at intersections and in sectioning areas power supply

Reinforced concrete or metal poles are used as supports for the contact network; as a rule, they also serve to accommodate street lighting fixtures. For closely located buildings, anchors mounted into the walls of the buildings are used to secure the suspension of contact wires.

The normal distance between trolleybus contact wires is 520 mm. The pressure of the pantograph on the contact wire should be up to 120 N for a trolleybus, and up to 80 N for a tram:

To ensure uniform wear of the tram pantograph pantograph, the contact wire in straight sections is suspended in a zigzag manner in a horizontal plane with deviations from the track axis of 250-350 mm. This arrangement of the contact wire ensures the alternate activation of various places of the contact insert of the tram pantograph and prevents it from heating up too much due to friction against the wire. The height of the contact wire suspension above the level of the rail head or roadway should be in the range of 5500-6300 mm and can be reduced under bridges and overpasses to 4200 mm. At intersections with railway tracks, the height of the suspension of contact wires should not be less than 5750 mm.

For operational lines, contact wires made of solid-drawn electrical copper with a cross-section of 85 mm 2 or 100 mm 2 are used (Fig.). The profiled side grooves of the contact wire are used for insertion of the fixing elements associated with the suspensions. It is also possible to use steel-aluminum wires with a cross-section of 180 mm 2.

Rice. Profiles of contact wires: a - copper (dimensions of wires with a cross section of 85 mm 2 - A = 11.3; B = 10.8, and with a cross section of 100 mm 2 - A = 12.7; B = 11.8); b – steel-aluminum with a cross section of 180 mm 2

Trolleybus wires, in addition to their main function of transmitting electricity, also serve as guides for trolleybus rods sliding along them. At the ends of the rods, hinged current collectors are mounted, equipped with quick-release contact inserts. The upper part of the contact insert is pressed against the bottom of the contact wire. The inserts have a profiled semicircular groove that holds it, and with it the rod, from free lateral movement. Conventional contact inserts are made from graphite and have abrasion resistance of 3-4 days. This rapid wear is explained by the constant contact of the working area of the insert with the wire, as a result of which the temperature of the insert in summer exceeds 100 °C. Metal-ceramic inserts are also used (abrasion resistance is about 7 working days), however, such inserts significantly wear out the contact wire, and therefore they are recommended to be used only during rain. To replace contact inserts, the trolleybus driver lowers and locks both rods. The time required to replace a pair of inserts is about 2 minutes.

In places where trolleybus contact wires branch, arrows are installed to ensure that the continuation of the trolleys switches to various directions, like turnouts on a rail track. The speed of passage of branches is up to 5 km/h. The branches are equipped with a sensor that is sensitive to whether the trolleybus traction motor is under load. When a trolleybus moves with the traction motor turned on, the electric drive, based on a signal from the sensor, moves the moving parts to the left, and when coasting, to the right. At the intersections of GNET lines (trolleybus-trolleybus, tram-tram, trolleybus-tram), special parts of the contact network, called intersections, are installed. The intersections of tram and trolleybus contact networks are performed at an angle of 40-90°, and the mutual intersection of trolleybus wires is at an angle of 50-90°.

Wear products from contact wires (copper dust) and contact inserts (graphite dust) pose an environmental hazard. To reduce friction in the wire-insert pair, roller current collectors are used abroad. Research is being conducted to create new composite materials for the manufacture of contact inserts.

Another problem that needs to be solved when operating a contact network is stray currents. These currents arise from leaks in the suction network. The mechanism of occurrence and movement of stray currents can be explained using the following example. When current enters the rail, not all of the current travels along the rail to the point of contact with the suction cable. Part of the current, especially in damp weather, goes into the ground, which is an electrolyte, and is then directed to the point of contact with the suction cable. The place where the current enters the ground forms the cathode zone, and the place where it exits forms the anodic zone. In this case, a stray current can pass through metal structures located in the ground (foundation and collector reinforcement, pipes, wires, etc.), causing their electrochemical corrosion (especially severe in the anodic zone) up to complete destruction. Similar processes can occur in a trolleybus suction network, where current leaks are explained by the presence of street dust and moisture on the suspension insulators. Stray currents that damaged old buildings became one of the reasons for the cessation of operation of the once numerous trolleybuses in the UK. To combat stray currents, a set of measures is carried out aimed at improving the electrical conductivity of the suction network and its isolation from objects of potential leakage.

The technical maintenance of traction substations, cable and contact networks of other power equipment is entrusted to the GNET energy services service. The principles of the organizational structure of this service are similar to the principles used in organizing the path service. If there are several tram and trolleybus depots, the functions of the energy service can be transferred to a specialized unitary enterprise. As part of the energy service, the distances (regions) for power supply of the GNET (contact network and traction substations) are formed on a territorial basis. Distances (regions) are divided into production areas assigned to teams. The service also includes workshops specializing in certain electrical and plumbing work.

The most common malfunction in the power supply system of the GNET, affecting traffic on trolleybus and tram routes, is a break in the contact wire. When a break occurs, the wire often falls. To prevent electric shock, automatic safety devices are installed that are activated at the moment of a break. Breaks are eliminated by on-duty emergency teams equipped with vehicles with special lifts and technological equipment.

The movement of rolling stock through a broken contact line can sometimes be ensured using emergency technology, for example, by towing trolleybuses (cars) on a rigid coupling or pushing the car forward by the next car that arrives. However, such techniques can be used to a limited extent if there is confidence in the provision of OBD and only when passengers are completely removed from the cabin of towed vehicles. After the trolleybus or tram car reaches a place from which it is possible to resume the interrupted movement, passengers re-enter the vehicle.

In many European countries, China and the USA, the size of the railway gauge is 4 feet and 8.5 inches, that is, 1435 mm. This width was adopted by engineer George Stephenson to build the first passenger railway line from Liverpool to Manchester. At that time, this width of tracks was the narrowest of all existing ones.

It was no coincidence that Stephenson settled on a width of 1435 mm - it corresponded to the distance between the wheels of Roman chariots, and subsequently stagecoaches. Well, the first English steam locomotive, as you know, was built exactly according to the width of the stagecoach.

A little later, according to the design of engineer Brinell, a railway with a width of 2135 mm was built. It was believed that distance would create conditions for increasing the speed of the locomotive. Throughout Europe, a real leapfrog began, associated with tracks of different widths, and steam locomotives began to run irregularly. As a result, in 1846, the British Parliament issued a decree obliging all railway owners to change the gauges to Stephenson's size.

Russian gauge

In Russia, the railway gauge is wider than the Stephenson gauge by exactly 85 cm and is 1520 mm. True, they did not settle on this size right away. The very first St. Petersburg - Tsarskoe Selo, which opened in 1837, generally had a gauge of 1829 mm wide.

In 1843, engineer Melnikov designed the St. Petersburg - Moscow railway and laid out a 1524 mm wide gauge for it. In his opinion, this size was much more optimal for the speed and stability of the rolling stock than Stephenson's. In addition, it provided a more convenient placement of the locomotive mechanism and an increase in the volume of the boiler and the weight of the cargo. A railway track of this size was subsequently distributed not only throughout Russia, but also in Finland and Mongolia.

There is also a version that the different railway gauge sizes from European ones were associated with making it difficult for the enemy to send troops into Russia in the event of an attack on the country.

IN Soviet years The gauge was reduced by 4 mm, and all railways were transferred to a 1520 mm gauge, which remains to this day, including in the countries of the former CIS. This was due to the goal of increasing the speed of trains without modernizing them, as well as to increase stability in the operation of freight trains. In Finland, the gauge remained the same - 1524 mm, and in Russia, some metro lines and trams still have a gauge of this width.

Map of railway gauges around the world

Track width- distance between the inner edges of the rail heads.

Railway

The nominal size of the track width between the inner edges of the rail heads on straight sections of the railway track and on curves with a radius of 350 m or more is 1,520 mm. The track width on steeper curves should be:

with a radius from 349 to 300 m - 1,530 mm;
with a radius of up to 299 m - 1,535 mm.

Track widths less than 1,512 mm and more than 1,548 mm are not allowed. Locating and running railway rolling stock intended for use on railway tracks common use, on railway tracks that do not comply with the specified standards is not allowed.

On non-public railway tracks it is allowed to preserve until reconstruction:

the nominal size of the track width between the inner edges of the rail heads in sections with wooden sleepers on straight sections of the railway track and on curves with a radius of 350 m or more is 1,524 mm;
track width on steeper curves with a radius of 349 m and less - 1,540 mm;
the magnitude of deviations from the nominal gauge dimensions that do not require elimination on straight and curved sections of a railway track with a radius of 350 m or more should not exceed −8 mm for narrowing, +6 mm for widening, and on sections of a railway track with a radius of 349 m or less - narrowing −4 mm, widening +10 mm.

Metropolitan

The track width between the inner edges of the rail heads on straight sections of the track should be 1,520 mm.

On all curved sections of the track, the track width should be at a radius:

more than 600 m - 1,524 mm;
from 600 m to 400 m - 1,530 mm;
from 399 m to 125 m - 1,535 mm;
from 124 m to 100 m - 1,540 mm;
less than 100 m - 1,544 mm.

On existing lines, on straight and curved sections of the track, the track width is allowed according to previously established standards. Maintenance standards for such sections of track are established by

A tram track is an engineering structure with such structural elements as: base (or lower structure), upper structure, drainage structures, subgrade, and road surface.

Building codes

Preparing the subgrade - First stage construction of tram tracks. If the track is placed on the roadway of the street, a longitudinal pit is dug; if the tracks are on a separate track, then an embankment or excavation is created.

Next, the under-rail supports and ballast are laid. They form the base of the tram track. These supports are longitudinal beams, sleepers or frame structures. For ballast, crushed stone, sand or fine gravel are chosen.

The upper structure of the track is rails, special working parts (crosspieces, turnouts, intersections, etc.), fastenings that are designed to connect rails and under-rail supports (linings, pads, bolts, crutches, couplers, screws, etc.) , as well as electrical connections.

Drainage structures are installed to remove groundwater and rainwater.

The road surface is laid outside the rails and between them if the tram track is located on the roadway of the street. The covering can be made of paving stones, asphalt concrete, cobblestones or reinforced concrete slabs.

Structural dimensions of the rail track

The main parameter is the track width. This is the clearance between the working edges of the rail heads, measured perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the track. On a straight track section this size is taken to be 1,524 mm (Russian railway gauge standard). In areas with curves or curves, the track width can be increased to match the radius of the curve or curve.

Sections with double-track traffic are laid taking into account the width of the cars (2,600 mm) and the required gap between them (600 mm). Therefore, if there are no supports for contact wires on the interpath, the generally accepted minimum width on a straight section is taken to be 3,200 mm, the normal width is 3,500 mm. If there are supports, the width between tracks must be at least 3,550 mm.

When laying a tram track, the actual width of the intertrack is marked between the axes of parallel tracks.

Placement and purpose

According to traffic regulations, tram tracks are placed at the edges of the roadway if there is an alley or boulevard, and if there is none, in the center. On embankments, major highways or streets with one-way traffic, tracks are laid along one side of the roadway.

When laying out tracks, preference is given to a track isolated from the rest. This is not always realistic: there is not enough free land, especially in big cities.

According to their purpose, tram tracks are divided into:

service (laid in depot areas and between operational tracks and the depot);
temporary (installed for a short period of repair work);
operational (main tram tracks).

The operational tram track is most often laid in two directions. Single-track ones are placed in places where it is impossible to lay tracks in two directions.

Every driver should know that tram tracks are not considered a strip of the road part, but are a separate element of the road. Therefore, even rails in the same direction as the automobile lane are not intended for the movement of trackless vehicles on them. Traveling onto a tram track in special cases is regulated by the DD Rules.

Permitted maneuvers on tram tracks

The fully permitted maneuver on rails for electric vehicles is crossing.

DD rules allow movement on tram rails only if:

they are located to the left of the driver;
they are at the same height as the road surface;
both the tram and the car are moving in the same direction.

Vehicles may move on rails in the same direction if all lanes of the roadway are occupied. But at the same time, conditions must be created for unimpeded passage of the tram. In addition, travel on tram tracks may be prohibited by appropriate road signs.

Prohibited actions of vehicles on tram tracks

A fine will be issued for the following driver actions:

travel on rails located to the right of the car;
driving on tram tracks located below or above the roadway;
driving on oncoming tram tracks (this may result in deprivation of the right to drive);
turn on the rails through the right side.

In addition, sanctions will be imposed if you ignore prohibitory road signs and/or markings on the roadway. These include signs 3.19; 4.1.1; 4.1.2; 4.1.4, as well as markup 1.1; 1.2.1 and 1.3.

U-turns and turns

As is clear from the rules of the DD, vehicles are allowed to move straight along the tracks for electric vehicles; it is also allowed to turn on the left side and turn (without interfering with the passage of electric vehicles), including crossing the street through an intersection.

A left turn is permitted by the DD Rules if:

there are no marking lines on the road surface;
the tram track lies to the right of the car and at the same height as the road.

When starting a maneuver, you need to make sure that there are no electric vehicles at the moment. Turns can only be made at right angles. Failure to comply with this condition is equivalent to driving into the oncoming lane, which entails a fine of 5,000 rubles. Sometimes this results in the turn signal being turned off before the maneuver is completed.

The reversal can be done like this:

make sure that the tram tracks are in the same direction as the car and are located no higher/lower than the road surface, and also that there are no signs or road markings prohibiting this maneuver;
give way (if necessary) to electric vehicles;
change lanes onto tram tracks in the same direction;
turn on the turn signal, make a U-turn;
turn off the turn signal.

If turning around on tram tracks is allowed (under the conditions described above), then overtaking is prohibited. Because it is impossible without entering the opposite lane.

The rules govern a right turn across tram tracks as follows. To perform this maneuver, the vehicle must be in the extreme right position. Starting a right turn from tracks for electric vehicles is strictly prohibited.

Possible errors when turning

One of the main ones is that the maneuver begins from the roadway, and not from the tram track. There is no liability in this case. The conversation is only about creating an emergency situation. If you start turning incorrectly, there is a high chance of colliding with a vehicle traveling straight on the tracks.

Second common mistake- turning around from tram tracks in the opposite direction. In this case, the driver commits a gross violation provided for by the DD Rules, clause 9.6, that is, he leaves and moves along the tram tracks in the opposite direction.

Often, a vehicle ends up not crossing the oncoming tram track. In this case, the traffic police inspector classifies this maneuver as driving into the oncoming lane of tram traffic. And this, naturally, threatens with a fine.

Well, there is also an error when turning through the left side on which vehicles are parked. In such a situation, it is advisable to start the maneuver when the vehicles (turning and parked) are on the same line. This initiation of a turn in limited space minimizes the possibility of a collision.

Crossing an unregulated intersection

The DD rules allow this only in cases where:

electric transport (located to the right of the driver) and the car are moving in the same direction, both will make a left turn;
the tram (located on the right side of the car) and the vehicle are moving in the same direction towards the intersection, but the car continues to move straight;
the electric vehicle on the driver's right will make a left turn, while the trackless vehicle continues to move in a straight line.

If the entrance to the intersection is determined by signs from paragraphs of Rules DD 5.10; 5.15.1 and 5.15.2 regulating traffic in lanes or indicating a road with reverse traffic, then sanctions for driving onto the path of electric vehicles will be mandatory, since they are prohibited. The right turn must be made without crossing the tram rails.

How can you turn if the road and tram tracks are in the same direction? The maneuver is allowed if the tracks are located at the same level. In such situations, a left turn is made from the tram tracks, as is a U-turn. Other movement may be indicated by signs 5.15.1; 5.15.2 or 1.18.

If there is a traffic controller or traffic light

In this case, with a permitting signal or gesture from the inspector, the tram has an absolute advantage for both types of transport, regardless of the direction of its movement. However, when a traffic light is turned on in an additional section together with a prohibiting one, electric vehicles are required to give way to cars moving in other directions.

How much will you have to pay

The amount of punishment for offenses on tram tracks depends on the seriousness of the offense. The most “expensive” of them is driving a vehicle on rails in the opposite direction. For this, a fine of 5,000 rubles or deprivation of a driver’s license for up to six months is provided. But if the offense was recorded by a video camera, the driver will only get off with a fine.

Punishment is also imposed for crossing the solid strip separating the tram track from the roadway. The traffic police inspector can simply warn you, or he can issue a fine of 500 rubles.

The same amount will be collected from a motorist traveling along tram rails in the same direction, but interfering with the movement of electric vehicles.

Stopping a vehicle on tram tracks is considered a very gross violations. Today it “costs” 1,500 rubles. In the capital and St. Petersburg, you will have to pay 3,000 rubles for this violation.

Drivers who allow themselves to go around an obstacle along the tracks for electric vehicles in the opposite direction must be prepared to pay for this liberty in the amount of one and a half thousand rubles. Moreover, neither a traffic jam nor a traffic jam are an excuse for an offense: they are not recognized as an obstacle. If a motorist is stopped again for the same offense, the Administrative Code allows for the deprivation of his driver's license for a period of 12 months. And if this offense was recorded by a video camera, the fine increases to 5,000 rubles. The same amount of fines (and perhaps deprivation of the license) awaits the driver who drove around an obstacle that could have been avoided without driving into the path of electric vehicles.

Sometimes the driver has compelling reasons forcing him to commit the described violations. However, they will have to prove their respect in court.

Road accidents

The motorist is almost always found to be the culprit. In very rare cases, the tram driver is at fault. For example, he left the depot without looking around, or started driving at a red (or yellow) traffic light.

The first thing a driver who causes an accident needs to do is clear the way for electric vehicles. Because how to pay for lost profits? transport company- the pleasure is expensive. Most often, the court makes concessions to the plaintiff and assigns amounts exceeding 10,000 rubles. Therefore, traffic lawyers advise that in any circumstances of an accident, the tram tracks should be vacated as soon as possible.

If electric vehicles are not involved in the incident, you need to quickly take the data of witnesses, draw it preferably with reference to some stationary object, take several photographs from different angles and go to the nearest traffic police department. If the situation allows, then you don’t have to contact the inspectorate, modern rules and the rules allow this.

Emergency situations

Driving on tram tracks, including those in the opposite direction, is allowed during repair work on one/several lanes of the roadway. In this case, traffic police inspectors will organize a detour, which may take place along oncoming tram tracks.

Also, traffic police officers have the right to offer such a detour due to a major traffic accident. But in these and similar situations, they must regulate the movement of the vehicle.

In Moscow, the reconstruction of the roadway has been completed. Enthusiasts. Now there are wear-resistant rails here, which has made it possible to significantly increase the speed of carriages. But repairing tram tracks is not all. Now a “green wave” has been launched for electric transport. This is a special adjustment of traffic lights and motion sensors. The latter are tuned to the approach of large transport. According to experts, both trams and motorists lose five times less time traveling through intersections: trams do not have to wait until the traffic light turns green for them, and drivers do not have to wait at the red light when there is no passing tram. The experimental "green wave" received many positive reviews. Therefore, such an intellectual interchange will be installed throughout the capital.

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