Pricing policy in marketing is a fairly compelling argument in the holistic concept of development of any enterprise that is in one way or another engaged in trade. Prices are everything! They determine the company’s place in the market, its niche among competitors. Unjustifiably low prices lead to the unprofitability of a particular trading organization. The reverse process - unreasonably high prices - leads to a drop in sales. This means that the enterprise will also become unprofitable. Prices become a deciding factor in:

• ensuring profit;
• create demand for products (goods);
• determine the efficiency of a particular structure or division of the company;
• competitive ability of the enterprise itself;
• implementation of the organization’s commercial goals;
• determining the profitability of the organization.

In the pricing policy of an enterprise, marketing should initially include the concept of the interests and needs of the buyer, the consumer factor. Without taking this indicator into account, there will be no successful work and long-term development. For marketing, pricing policy necessarily changes depending on the goals set. For example, if a trading company is looking for new sales markets and strives to expand its consumer audience, then in its marketing pricing policy its management should include the idea of ​​specially reducing sales revenue in order to attract a new consumer at a low price.

The basis of marketing pricing policy is markup

Marketers also take into account the size of the difference between the price of a product and its cost. This is quite an important factor. No less important is the stage of development of the enterprise, its stage of existence:

Extension;
modernization;
recent discovery;
restructuring;
optimization;
staff reduction;
closure;
bankruptcy.

Pricing according to pricing policy Marketing of any trading enterprise should focus on this. Pricing policy may change dramatically depending on the above indicators. In marketing, pricing policy also considers the following components of price analysis:

1. Determination of price norms and guidelines.
2. Taking into account the nature of consumer preferences.
3. Competent and adequate price differentiation.
4. Factors of price changes.
5. Relationship with other marketing factors.
6. Flexibility of demand.
7. Its relationship with supply.
8. Product quality.
9. Possible discounts.
10. Promotional offers.
11. The degree of implementation of the company's development concept.

Moreover, quality is the basis for pricing. For an objective price, product examination should be carried out (quality level, grade, brand, packaging, manufacturer, shelf life).

Marketing pricing policy is divided into pricing and price management

If we consider the pricing policy of an enterprise in marketing, then price here is a key element in modern stage marketing development. All trading companies are ranked based on their pricing policy. And these statements give a real idea of ​​the economic situation on the market. Only the price provides a guaranteed income if all necessary conditions are met. Marketing specialists share the concept of pricing and price management as decisive in the pricing policy of a particular organization. Speaking about the first, it is necessary to take into account that quality, demand and the capabilities of buyers determine the price. And when the price has already been set, it is much more difficult to adjust and maintain it. After all, the trading market is quite changeable and flexible. That is why the price management strategy is constant monitoring and marketing of that very market. Associated with these concepts is a markup (as the difference between two prices - wholesale and retail). All participants in the sale and purchase must have an interest in this matter. If the “gap” (markup) is small enough, then interest in selling this product disappears. Although the demand for a low price may increase, and vice versa. This means that the search for the ideal option (“balance point”) is very important.

The marketing mix is ​​understood as a set of controlled parameters and variables marketing activities organizations, manipulating which it tries to best satisfy the needs of target markets. In other words, the marketing mix refers to “a set of controllable marketing variables.”

The most reasonable is the “4P” concept, according to which the marketing mix consists of four elements (tools), each of which English language begins with the letter “P”: product, price, bringing the product to the consumer, to the place, promotion of the product. This concept was first proposed by Jerome McCarthy in 1960. In accordance with this concept, organizations, as part of their marketing activities, develop and implement product (commodity), pricing, sales and communication policies, which are reflected in the four main sections of the marketing plan. An organization can vary the parameters of the marketing mix in order to most effectively influence the market, consumers and achieve its goals within the framework of available capabilities and its understanding of the role of marketing. However, the structure of the marketing complex itself does not change; only the “filling” of its individual elements changes.

Price is the main element of the marketing mix, as it affects all components of the “4P” concept (see Fig. No. 2 in the appendix). Here it is necessary to clarify one point: if the market is price inelastic, then a change in the price factor will practically not change the amount of demand for a product or service (see Fig. No. 3 in the appendix). Therefore, in a market with inelastic demand, price fades into the background in the enterprise’s marketing system.

Price is a flexible marketing tool because prices can be changed quickly and easily based on demand, cost, or competition factors.

Due to the price elasticity of demand, price is one of the key
marketing tools. This happens for the following reasons:

1) Price changes greatly affect sales volume. Usually relatively low price attracts additional customers, but an unusually high price can have the same effect in some cases.

2) Changing the price, unlike any other marketing components, has the fastest effect. Price is the only marketing tool that is easily subject to change. To change the remaining three elements of the 4P concept, it is necessary to a large number of time and costs. The price can be easily edited to suit the changing conditions of competitors and consumers.

3) Potential consumers react faster to price changes than to changes in goods or services proposed to them. To see changes in the quality of a product, you need to buy or try it, while changes in price are immediately visible.

4) Changing the price in order to attract new customers is effective only in combination with promotional measures aimed at both resellers and potential clients. Price remains the main marketing tool only when interacting with other elements of the 4P concept.

All these reasons, with the correct determination of price, most significantly increase the sales volume of a product or service, which is the main result in the implementation of marketing policy. This in turn determines price as the main tool of the marketing mix.

When making a first purchase, the consumer cannot evaluate the quality of the product, and other things being equal, he will focus on price. As a rule, cheaper products are perceived by consumers as being of lower quality and vice versa. A high price gives a product or service a higher consumption status due to the limited number of consumers. Therefore, price acts as a separator in market segmentation.

A change in price will have a beneficial effect on sales only if it is set “correctly”. To do this, it is necessary to analyze competitors' prices, consumer capabilities, and many other factors. But in order to set the “correct” price, it is necessary to choose a pricing method that will reflect all costs, product features, market position, consumer desires, which in turn will determine the “correctness” of the price set for the product or service.

Price is the starting point for the consumer to choose a product or service. Typically, price is a more attractive factor than minor product features. A change in price in the short term affects the amount of demand and, accordingly, the volume of sales, so if an enterprise or organization wants to see quick and qualitative changes, then the price is key tool in the marketing mix

Price complex marketing tools are the totality of all tools related to the price of a product. This includes pricing policy, i.e. the actual price of the product, discount policy, terms of delivery and payment. Thus, we can say that the price complex is the general terms of the transaction.

Let's take a closer look.

1. Price policy determines what price is set for a particular product. Are used three pricing methods- By costs(costs + profit margin), according to competitors, By consumers(what price they are willing to pay for the product). Pricing policy can be long-term or medium-term and should be considered from a strategic point of view.

2. Discount– reduction in price for certain (product-related) consumer actions. The discount policy assumes

- building a discount system– what discounts will be used (functional, discounts for a certain volume, for “loyalty” to the product, etc. The types of discounts will be described in more detail in the topic “Pricing Policy”)

- determining the discount amount

- determination of discount intervals(for example, a 5% discount is provided when purchasing a batch of goods from 100 to 200 units, a 10% discount - from 201 to 300, etc.)

3. Delivery conditions include readiness for delivery, delivery time, terms of delivery of goods, conditions for replacement and return of goods, cost of packaging, freight and insurance. Most of these parameters are specified in the contract or in general conditions transactions, rules, etc.

4. Conditions of payment regulate the method of payment (for example, payment in advance, in cash, after receiving the goods, in whole or in parts), security of payment, means of payment (bank transfer, letter of credit, etc.), as well as payment terms and discounts for paying in cash.

5. When payment terms increase, another tool of the pricing complex comes into play - credit policy, for the use of which you need to determine the conditions (interest) and terms of the loan. Credit policies are widely used, e.g. retail chains, selling household appliances.

Komi branch of the Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education

"Vyatka State Agricultural Academy"

Test

in the discipline "Marketing"

on the topic: "Pricing policy"

Syktyvkar 2012

Introduction

1. Pricing policy and its features

1.1 General ideas

2 Objectives of pricing policy

2. Pricing policy and marketing

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

Market and price are categories determined by commodity production. Moreover, the market is primary. This is explained by the fact that in commodity production, economic relations are manifested mainly not in the production process itself, but through the market. It is the market that acts as the main form of manifestation of commodity-money relations and value categories. In a market economy, the law of value plays an important role, which is implemented through the mechanisms of pricing and balancing supply and demand. It serves as one of the regulators social production, facilitating the flow of resources from one sector of the economy to another and within individual sectors. In this regard, the function of price arises as a criterion for the rational placement of production.

The main feature of market pricing is that the real process of price formation here occurs not in the sphere of production, not at the enterprise, but in the sphere of product sales, i.e. in the market, under the influence of supply and demand, commodity-money relations. The price of a product and its utility are tested by the market and are finally determined in the market. Since only on the market does public recognition of products as goods occur, their value also receives public recognition through the price mechanism also on the market.

Target test work expand on the topic: “Pricing policy.” To achieve this goal, it is necessary to solve the following tasks:

.Consider the general features of pricing policy.

2.Identify the relationship between pricing policy and marketing.

1. Pricing policy and its features

.1 General ideas

Pricing policy is the principles and methods for determining prices for goods and services. There are micro (at the firm level) and macro (in the sphere of state regulation of prices and tariffs) levels of price formation. The company's pricing policy is formed within the framework of the company's overall strategy and includes a pricing strategy and pricing tactics. Pricing strategy involves positioning the proposed product in the market.

Pricing policy reflects the general goals of the company that it seeks to achieve by setting the prices of its products. Price policy is general principles which an enterprise intends to adhere to in setting prices for its goods or services.

During the implementation of pricing policy, the company's management must adjust immediate activities and monitor the timing of strategy changes. Prices are actively used in competition to ensure a sufficient level of profit. Determining the prices of goods and services is one of the the most important problems any enterprise, since the optimal price can ensure its financial well-being. The pricing policy pursued largely depends on the type of goods or services offered by the enterprise. It is formed in close connection with planning the production of goods or services, identifying consumer requests, and stimulating sales. The price must be set in such a way that, on the one hand, it satisfies the needs and requirements of customers, and on the other hand, helps achieve the goals set by the enterprise, which is to ensure the receipt of sufficient financial resources. Pricing policy is aimed at establishing prices for goods and services depending on the current market conditions, which will allow the enterprise to obtain the volume of profit planned by the enterprise and solve other strategic and operational tasks.

As part of the overall pricing policy, decisions are made in accordance with the position in the target market of the enterprise, methods and marketing structure. The general pricing policy provides for the implementation of coordinated actions aimed at achieving the long- and short-term goals of the enterprise. At the same time, its management determines the general pricing policy, linking individual decisions into an integrated system: the relationship between the prices of goods within the company’s product range, the frequency of using special discounts and price changes, the ratio of prices to the prices of competitors, the choice of method for setting prices for new products.

Determining the pricing policy is based on the following questions:

what price a buyer would pay for the product;

How does a change in price affect sales volume?

what are the constituent cost components;

what is the nature of competition in the market segment;

what should be the level of the threshold price (minimum) that ensures the company’s break-even;

what discount can be provided to customers;

Will delivery of goods and other additional services affect the increase in sales?

General Policy enterprises must ultimately be aimed at meeting specific human needs. Therefore, determining pricing policy is one of the most important areas practical activities enterprises.

1.2 Objectives of pricing policy

pricing demand marketing

In the absence of conditions for normal free pricing, one should either strictly limit the scope of free prices, or, allowing their free movement, implement them government regulation. Therefore, it seems possible to determine the main objectives of pricing policy. When setting these objectives, first of all, the company will have to decide what specific goals it seeks to achieve with the help of a particular product.

The main goal and task of pricing policy on a market scale is to stop the decline in production, limit the rate of inflation, create incentives for commodity producers, and achieve an increase in income through production rather than prices. If the choice target market and market positioning are carefully thought out, then the approach to the formation of the marketing mix, including the problem of price, is quite clear. After all, the pricing strategy is mainly determined by previously made decisions regarding positioning in the market. At the same time, the company may pursue other goals. The clearer the idea about them, the easier it is to set the price. Examples of such goals often encountered in practice can be: ensuring survival, maximizing current profit, gaining leadership in terms of market share or product quality indicators.

Ensuring survival becomes the main goal and task of the company in cases where there are too many competitors in the market - manufacturers and there is intense competition or customer needs change dramatically. To ensure the normal operation of enterprises and the sale of manufactured goods, firms are forced to set low prices in the hope of a favorable response from consumers. In this case, survival on the global market for an enterprise becomes more important than profit. As long as the reduced prices cover the costs of the hardship, firms can continue to operate for some time. commercial activities.

Many firms strive to maximize current profits. They evaluate demand and production costs at different price levels and select the appropriate price that will maximize current profit and cash flow and maximize cost recovery. In all such cases, the current financial indicators for the company, long-term ones are more important. Other firms want to be the market share leader because the company with the largest market share will have the lowest costs and the highest long-term profits. Achieving leadership in terms of market share, they reduce prices as much as possible. A variant of this goal is the desire to achieve a specific increase in market share.

A company can set itself the main goal and task to ensure that its products are of the highest quality of all those offered on the market. This usually requires pricing it high enough to cover the costs of achieving high quality and expensive research and development efforts.

2. Pricing policy and marketing

There are two main ways to set prices for manufactured products based on the costs of production and marketing of the product and on market opportunities (purchasing power). The first method is called cost-based pricing, the second is demand-based pricing. The third, less common, but also important method is pricing based on prices for competitive products.

There are several factors that a company directly influences when choosing a pricing method for its product:

The value factor is one of the most important factors. Each product is capable of satisfying some customer needs to a certain extent. To coordinate the price and utility of a product, you can: give the product greater value, educate the buyer through advertising about the value of the product, adjust the price so that it corresponds to the real value of the product.

Cost factor - costs and profit make up the minimum price of the product. The simplest way to set prices: given known costs and expenses, add an acceptable rate of profit. However, even if the price only covers expenses, there is no guarantee that the product will be purchased. This is why some manufacturing enterprises go bankrupt; the market can value their goods lower than the cost of their production and sale.

Competition factor - competition has a strong influence on pricing policy. You can provoke a surge of competition by setting a high price for a product or eliminate it by setting a minimum price. If a product requires a special production method, or its production is very complex, then low prices will not attract competitors to it, but high prices will tell competitors what to do.

Sales promotion factor - the price of the product includes a trade margin, which pays for the measures taken to stimulate the market. When releasing a product to the market, advertising needs to cross the threshold of perception before consumers become aware of the product. All funds spent on sales promotion must subsequently be recouped through product sales.

Distribution factor - the distribution of a good produced significantly affects its price. The closer the product is to the consumer, the more expensive it is for the manufacturer to distribute it. If the goods are delivered directly to the consumer, then each concluded transaction becomes a separate operation, the money intended for the supplier is received by the manufacturer, but its production costs also increase. The advantage of this distribution method is complete control over sales and marketing. When selling a product to a large retailer or wholesaler, sales are no longer counted in units, but in dozens, but control over sales and marketing is lost. Product distribution is the most important factor in marketing after the product itself. When purchased, a product rarely satisfies the needs of all customers completely. Therefore, manufacturers make concessions in quality, weight, color, technical data, etc. more or less willingly depending on the price level, but even if a given seller has the lowest prices on the market, no amount of advertising can compensate for the lack of the right product at the right time in the right place. Finding competent distributors who would actively undertake the sale of goods is a very expensive matter. They will want to be paid for storing goods in warehouses and distributing goods immediately after they are sold. This amount should be included in the price and not exceed similar costs of competitors.

Public opinion factor - people usually have some idea about the price of a product, whether it is consumer or industrial. When purchasing a product, they are guided by certain price boundaries, or price radius, which determines the price at which they are willing to buy this product. The enterprise must either not go beyond the boundaries of this radius in the prices of its goods, or justify why the price for it goes beyond these limits. A manufactured product may be superior to existing analogues in some qualities, and if such advantages are perceived positively by customers, then the price for it can be raised, but if the advantages of this product are not so obvious, it is necessary to resort to additional advertising or other marketing techniques to stimulate the sale of this product On the market.

Service factor - customer service is involved in the pre-sale, sales and post-sale stages of the purchase and sale of goods. Customer service costs must be included in the price of the product offered. Such expenses usually include: preparation of quotes, calculations, installation of equipment, delivery of goods to the point of sale, training and retraining of service personnel (salespeople, cashiers, consumer consultants), provision of a guarantee for the goods or the right to pay in installments. Many products offered in the market do not require after-sales service, but a significant group of consumer goods (such as groceries and convenience goods) require pre-sales service, such as displaying them or demonstrating their qualities. All this service offered must be repaid through the price of the product.

The choice of pricing strategy constitutes the content of the enterprise's concept in determining prices for its products. This determines the planning of the enterprise’s revenue and profit from the sale of goods. An enterprise operating in market conditions, first of all, needs to develop a strategy and principles for determining prices, guided by which it can solve the problems facing it.

The lack of a clearly defined pricing strategy contributes to uncertainty in decision-making in this area by various departments of the enterprise (if it has complex structure), can lead to inconsistency of these decisions and result in a weakening of the enterprise’s position in the market, losses in revenue and profit.

The company does not just set this or that price, it creates an entire pricing system covering different goods and products within product range and taking into account differences in sales organization costs in different geographic regions, differences in demand levels, distribution of purchases over time and other factors. In addition, the company operates in a constantly changing competitive environment and sometimes itself initiates price changes, and sometimes responds to competitors’ price initiatives.

A firm's strategic approach to pricing depends in part on the stages life cycle goods. The market launch stage places especially great demands. A distinction can be made between pricing a genuine new product protected by a patent and pricing a product that imitates existing products.

Pricing a Genuine New Product - A firm introducing a patented new product to the market may choose either a skimming strategy or a strong market penetration strategy when setting its price.

Cream-skimming strategy - many firms that have created patent-protected new products based on major inventions or the results of large-scale and therefore expensive R&D, when the costs of developing a new market (advertising and other means of promoting products to consumers) turn out to be too high for competitors, when necessary to produce a new product raw materials, materials and components are available in limited quantities or when it turns out to be too difficult to sell new products (if the warehouses of resellers are overcrowded, the economic situation is sluggish, and wholesale and retail are reluctant to enter into new transactions for the purchase of goods), at first they set the highest prices for them that can only be requested in order to “skim the cream” from the market. Wherein new product accepted only by some market segments. After the initial wave of sales slows, the firm lowers the price to attract the next tier of customers who are satisfied with the new price. By acting in this way, the company skims the maximum possible financial cream from a variety of market segments. In this case, it is desirable to maximize short-term profit until new market will not become an object of competition.

Using the market skimming method makes sense under the following conditions:

) there is a high level of current demand from a sufficiently large number of buyers;

) the costs of small-scale production are not so high as to negate the financial benefits of the company;

) a high initial price will not attract new competitors;

) a high price supports the image of a high quality product.

Strategy for strong market penetration - other companies, on the contrary, set a relatively low price for their new product in the hope of attracting a large number of buyers and gaining a large market share. An example of such a strategy would be the purchase of a large plant, setting the lowest possible price for a product, gaining a large market share, reducing production costs and, as they are reduced, continuing to gradually reduce the price. From a purely financial point of view, the position of an enterprise that follows this approach can be characterized by both an increase in the amount of profit and income on invested capital, and a significant drop in profitability. Therefore, when using intentionally low prices, enterprise management must calculate the possible consequences as accurately as possible, but in any case, the degree of risk is very high, since competitors can quickly react to price reductions and significantly reduce the prices of their products. When analyzing the market and drawing up a sales forecast for an enterprise introducing to the market new products at a price below average, you must also take into account that the size of the price reduction for its products should be very significant (30-50%). And this is even with a significantly higher level of product quality, if there are many consumers in a particular market who are willing to pay a higher price for products of improved quality or higher technical level. In this case, it does not matter whether we are talking about the enterprise entering a new, but, in general, long-established sales market or about promoting a new product on a fairly well-known market. In both cases, the management policy should be approximately the same - to penetrate the market through noticeably lower prices, accustom the consumer to the brand of your company or give him the opportunity to understand the advantages of your products and, therefore, secure a sufficient market share and sales volume . Only when the product is recognized in the market and its advertising among consumers on the word-of-mouth principle has begun, can the company reconsider how its production programs, and prices for products are increasing. pricing demand marketing product

Elimination strategy - designed to prevent potential competitors from entering the market, its other purpose is to achieve maximum sales before a competitor enters the market. The price is therefore set as close to the costs as possible, which gives a small profit and is justified only by the large volume of sales. A small company could use this strategy to concentrate its activities on a small segment of the market: quickly enter it, quickly make a profit, and just as quickly leave this segment.

The demand-following strategy is similar to the skimming strategy, but instead of holding the price at a constant high level and convincing buyers to enter new level consumption, the price is reduced under strict control. Often a product receives minor changes in design and features to make it significantly different from previous models. Sometimes you have to change to match the price drop. appearance product, promotional activities, packaging or method of distribution. The price is held at each new reduced level long enough to satisfy all existing demand. As soon as sales volume begins to decline significantly, you should prepare for the next price reduction.

Thus, prices and pricing policy are one of the main components of marketing activities. Commercial results and the degree of efficiency of all production and marketing activities of a company or enterprise depend on how correctly and thoughtfully the pricing policy is structured.

Conclusion

The essence of a targeted pricing policy is to set such prices for goods and vary them depending on the position in the market in order to capture its share, ensure the competitiveness of goods in terms of price indicators, the intended volume of profit and solve other problems.

In a market economy, the success of any enterprise or entrepreneur largely depends on how correctly they set prices for their goods and services. But this is not so easy to do, because prices are significantly influenced by a complex of political, economic, psychological and social factors. Today the price may be determined by the amount of costs for the production of a product, and tomorrow its level may depend on the psychology of buyer behavior. Consequently, when setting the price of a product, an entrepreneur must take into account all the factors influencing its level and set the price in such a way as to make a profit.

However, at present, a significant part of entrepreneurs in our country do not have the necessary theoretical and practical knowledge complex pricing mechanism for goods and services. As a result, they often make serious mistakes when setting prices, which in some cases leads to significant losses and sometimes to bankruptcy of enterprises.

Bibliography

Daly J. L. Effective pricing is the basis competitive advantage. - M.: Publishing House "Williams", 2004.- 345 p.

2. Evdokimova T.G., Makhovikova G.A., Zheltyakova I.A., Pereverzeva S.V. Theory and practice of price management. - St. Petersburg: Neva, 2004. - 258 p.

Kotler F. Fundamentals of Marketing / F. Kotler - St. Petersburg: JSC Koruna, 2002. - 697 p.

Krylova G.D., Sokolova M.I. Marketing. Theory and practice: Textbook for universities. -M.: UNITY-DANA, 2004. - 655 p.

Parshin V.F. Pricing policy of an enterprise: a guide / V.F. Parshin. - Minsk: Vysh. school, 2010. - 336 p.

Prices and pricing: Textbook for universities / Ed. V.E. Esipova. 4th ed. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2005. - 365 p.

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Price– the most important component marketing complex. It is prices that determine the structure of production and have a decisive impact on the movement of material flows, the distribution of the commodity mass, and the level of well-being of the population.

Professor of the Financial Academy under the Government of the Russian Federation E.I. Punin notes: “For independent commodity producers operating in the market, regardless of their form of ownership, the question of prices is a matter of life and death.”

Adoption marketing solutions in the field of setting prices for goods is a rather difficult task for an enterprise, which is due to the special role of price as a means of making a profit, as well as its specific functions in the marketing mix. Pricing policy is closely related to the product, distribution and communication policies of the enterprise and is the final stage in the development of the marketing mix.

“Only marketing can set a price for a product that is high enough for the manufacturer and low enough for the consumer,” says the second commandment of marketing.

When setting prices, enterprise management must pay special attention to the following relationships:

? “price – product” – price reflects beneficial features goods for consumers;

? “price - distribution” - the organization of sales affects the price of the goods sold;

On corporate level price is the main factor of long-term profitability, predetermining the methods of conducting price or non-price competition:

– price competition leads to setting prices below the existing market level and is associated with achieving advantages in minimizing costs;

– non-price competition allows prices to be set at the level of existing market prices and even above them and is focused on a policy of differentiation.

In a market economy main price functions are:

Accounting;

Stimulating;

Distribution;

Balancing supply and demand;

Rational placement of production.

The essence of pricing policy in marketing– setting such prices for the enterprise’s goods and varying them depending on the market position in order to capture a certain market share, obtain the planned amount of profit, etc.

The goals of an enterprise's pricing policy can be:

Long-term or short-term profit maximization;

The economic growth;

Market stabilization;

Reducing consumer sensitivity to prices;

Maintaining leadership in prices;

Preventing the threat of potential competition;

Maintaining trade loyalty;

Improving the image of the enterprise and its products;

Increasing buyer interest;

Strengthening the market position of the assortment;

Capturing dominant positions in the market.

Complex tasks that marketers solve when developing and implementing pricing policies are presented in Fig. 4.1.

Rice. 4.1. Objectives of pricing policy in marketing

To work successfully in the market, it is very important to correctly take into account the factors influencing the price level. Marketers of foreign companies usually arrange them in ranked order.

1. Production costs.

2. Prices of competitors exporting to a given country.

3. Prices of local competing companies.

5. Transport costs.

6. Extra charges and discounts in favor of the intermediary.

7. Import duties and other charges.

Table 4.1

Factors influencing pricing in marketing

The methodology for developing pricing policy in marketing involves five stages (Table 4.2).

Table 4.2

Stages of developing a pricing policy

*See fig. 4.4.

The marketing system uses different kinds prices Some of them are presented in table. 4.3.

Table 4.3

Types of prices used when developing a pricing strategy

Data from the contract of the enterprise itself or other companies for similar goods;

Offers from foreign companies for the supply of similar goods (usually their prices are inflated);

Reference prices;

The difference in the competitiveness of goods. Taking it into account, amendments are made to the base price, for example, for differences in the configuration of the goods being compared, for differences in basic technical and economic indicators, in commercial or other terms of the transaction (terms, delivery conditions, payment terms, transaction volume, etc. ).

Should be considered international practice changes in the price (P) of equipment depending on its power (performance) – P:

Where P– an exponent that takes into account the dependence of price on the power (performance) of equipment.

When calculating the level of competitiveness, it is recommended to calculate the price of a product using the formula:

where Ts1, Ts0 are the selling prices of the analyzed and basic goods;

It.p., Ie.p. – parametric indicators for technical specifications and competitiveness of the analyzed product without taking into account sales prices;

IN– market share of the basic product (by value);

F– coefficient of equity participation of a single indicator of the sales price of a product;

? - an indicator of the relationship between supply and demand for a product, or an indicator of the prestige of the enterprise producing the product.

Calculations using the latter formula allow us to obtain a selling price that reflects the level of consumption prices and the overall competitiveness of the product in question.

Depending on the specific market situation, pricing can be:

Differentiated;

Competitive;

Assorted;

Geographical;

Stimulating.

At differentiated pricing differentiate:

–> spatial – the price is set depending on the location of buyers in different territories;

–> temporary – the price is set depending on the time of day, days of the week or time of year;

–> personalized – the price is set depending on the group of consumers (for goods for young people, the elderly, professionals, etc.);

–> quantitative – the price is set depending on the volume of the sold batch of goods.

The specific expression of differentiated pricing is standard and variable, uniform and flexible, discriminatory, fixed and sliding prices, the characteristics of which are given in Table. 4.3.

Competitive pricing aimed at maintaining price leadership in the market. The following methods are used:

? “price wars” – are used mainly in the market of monopolized competition. If prices are set above competitors' prices, the product attracts a small number of buyers;

? "skimming";

? "penetration";

? “learning curve” is a compromise between the “skimming” and “penetration” prices. A rapid transition from high prices to lower ones is expected to attract more buyers and neutralize the actions of competitors.

Assortment pricing is based not so much on the economic, but on the psychological perception of price by the buyer. This installs:

–> price lines – a range of prices within one product range, where each product reflects a certain level of quality;

–> “above par” price – a fairly low price for the basic product and a wide range of additional products to it;

–> price “with bait” - the price of a basic product, accessible to the mass buyer, and increased prices for a wide range of additional products to it;

–> prices for related products;

–> price for a set – a single price for a set of products;

–> prices for by-products;

–> psychological prices.

Between individual products within the range Various connections can develop:

–> interchangeability;

–> interdependence.

Changing the relationship between goods is made using the method cross elasticity, allowing to assess the switching of demand from one product to another.

Geographic pricing takes into account the features of the purchase and sale process from producers to consumers. It is used primarily in the formation of export prices. In Russian practice, for example, the following prices are widely used:

–> “ex-works” (EXW) – the seller places the goods at the disposal of the buyer on his territory, and the buyer bears all further risks and expenses;

–> “free on board” (FOB) – the seller’s responsibility ends when the goods are loaded on board (ship, plane, car);

–> “free along the side of the ship” (FAS) – the seller delivers the goods to the pier and bears all costs until loading;

–> “price, insurance, freight” (CIF) – the seller pays transport costs and insures the goods to the port of destination.

Incentive pricing based on the use of various types of discounts and offsets presented in table. 4.5.

Characteristics of methods for setting prices in marketing are given in Table. 4.4.

Table 4.4

Methods for setting prices in marketing

Price adjustments are often taken into account when calculating the final selling price. The simplest dependence that is used in this case:

where %srb is the average bank interest rate for lending operations (for a given country and for a given period of time);

i– number of parts of the advance or installment payment;

ri– the amount of the corresponding payment, %;

ti– the period between making an advance payment and receiving the order (or between receiving the order and the time of payment of the installment fee).

When calculating the price of a product it is widely used discount from price– reduction in the initial price of goods and services.

In marketing, various types of discounts are used, presented in table. 4.5.

Table 4.5

Types of price discounts in marketing

The methods presented in table. 4.4, allow you to calculate prices for goods. The price calculation algorithm is shown in Fig. 4.2.

Rice. 4.3. Price calculation algorithm

The nature of pricing strategies, the technology of their development and implementation methods are influenced by many factors, including:

The market potential of the enterprise and its ability to influence the market;

Market position of the enterprise and the level of its competitiveness;

Level of competition in the market;

The desire of the enterprise management for its intensive growth;

Changing the production profile and transition to the production of new products;

Transition to new forms and methods of work in the market.

Marketing practice uses various types of pricing strategies, which can be grouped into three groups.

1. Cost-oriented.

The total cost per unit of goods is calculated. The required data can be obtained from the data production accounting. Agreed percentages are taken into account.

Advantages of the strategy: costs are easy to determine, since the method of calculating them is well known and convenient. However, deciding on overhead costs is quite subjective, and the demand factor is not taken into account.

In practice, when calculating prices, the break-even principle of production is often used. When calculating the possibility of achieving break-even when selling a certain volume of products at a given price, use the break-even formula:

where C is the price;

K – quantity of goods;

Ipost – fixed costs;

Iper – variable costs.

2. Demand oriented.

An enterprise may have a general idea of ​​the shape of the demand curve, since the latter is subject to constant fluctuations under the influence of competition, the market, the emergence of analogue products, external environment etc.

The enterprise must study the demand for such products using direct interviews, experiments, and statistical conclusions.

Quantitative measurement price sensitivity carried out using indicators:

Elasticity of demand;

? "perceived value".

Elasticity of demand depending on price - a percentage change in the sales volume of a product as a result of a change in its price by 1% (issues of elasticity are discussed in paragraph 3.2.). Demand is price elastic if it changes in the opposite direction compared to price.

If the market is saturated with a large number of goods and services that can satisfy the same needs, the price elasticity of demand is greater than one. In this case, price reduction becomes an effective tool for expanding the sales market and increasing sales revenue.

If the number of purchasing options is limited or demand exceeds supply, a situation of inelastic demand arises: prices may be higher. The important thing is that the more urgent the need, the less the price elasticity of demand (medicines, essential products, etc.).

Measuring the elasticity of demand allows you to determine in which direction prices need to be influenced to ensure an increase in sales.

The elasticity of demand depends on the price and consumer expenses, which are interrelated (Table 4.6).

Table 4.6

Dependence of price elasticity of demand on consumer expenses

Measurement perceived value product allows you to predict the development of demand by assessing the buyer’s perception not only of price, but also of other factors.

Any consumer is sensitive to price, but this sensitivity can vary significantly depending on the importance attributed to the product. The literature identifies 9 causal factors that determine consumer sensitivity to the price of individual goods:

Unique value effect - buyers are not so sensitive to price if the product has unique properties;

The effect of lack of awareness of analogues - buyers are less sensitive to price if they do not know about the existence of analogues;

Difficulty of comparison effect - buyers are less price sensitive if products are difficult to compare;

Total cost effect – buyers are less price sensitive if the price of the product is only a small proportion of their expenses;

The final benefit effect - buyers are less sensitive to price, the smaller the share of the product’s price in general expenses to obtain the final result;

Cost-sharing effect – buyers are less sensitive to price if they share it with others;

Sunk investment effect - buyers are less sensitive to price if it is used in conjunction with a previously purchased main product that represents a sunk cost;

The effect of the connection between price and quality - buyers are not so sensitive to price if the product evokes strong associations with quality, prestige, and exclusivity;

Inventory effect – buyers are less price sensitive if they do not have the opportunity to stock up on an item.

These price sensitivity factors apply to both product category purchasing decisions and brand choice.

In the market for industrial and technical products customer needs are more specific and the functions performed by the product are more defined. With low price sensitivity:

The price of the goods sold is only a small part of the final product price for the client or in his purchasing budget;

Losses from using a low-quality product are higher than the price;

Using the product can lead to significant savings;

The client implements a strategy of increased quality by purchasing this product;

The client needs a specific product, manufactured, for example, to a special order;

The client has a good financial position;

The client is poorly informed about market conditions;

The motivation for purchasing, as a rule, does not include cost minimization.

3. Competition-oriented (closed bidding).

Three mutually exclusive strategies can be used:

Adjustments to market price;

Consistent price reduction;

Consistent overpricing.

Variety competitive pricing is tender pricing– proposals (tenders) of suppliers invited to participate in tenders for the supply of certain types of goods are submitted by a certain date in a sealed envelope, which is opened publicly. The tender with the lowest price is accepted. Offers are based on the company’s own costs in producing the product and analyzing possible proposals competitors.

Alternative pricing strategies are presented in Table. 4.7.

Choice alternative option pricing strategy depends on pricing goals (Fig. 4.3), product quality (Table 4.8) and product life cycle (Table 4.9).

Rice. 4.3. Pricing goals when developing a pricing strategy

Table 4.8

Strategies for setting prices depending on product quality

Table 4.7

Alternative options for an enterprise's pricing strategy

* Marketing multiplier– an indicator that summarizes the long-term effect of price changes over a certain period and gives a reduced assessment of the variety of price influences.

Strategically optimal price ( R wholesale), which allows you to optimize long-term profit, can be determined by the formula:

Where E n – short-term price elasticity;

C – marginal costs;

M– marketing multiplier.

1. The company announces that the price of its electronic typewriter on January 1, 1994 is $850. This price includes delivery to the buyer, installation and two rolls of tape. highest quality. The company guarantees the absence of manufacturing defects for 90 days.

What might be the long-term and immediate consequences of this announcement for the firm?

2. Managers of a store selling frozen seafood note a drop in demand for the product in summer time. What could be causing this? Develop proposals for improving the sales organization.

3. In the Russian computer market, competition has become very intense, while the solvency of the population remains limited. What can retailers do to improve performance in the price-advertising chain in this situation?

4. The company sells a children's doll at a reasonable price. high price. Offer your option for increasing product sales.

5. In conditions of economic stagnation in a number of countries, small producers household appliances offer trade discounts, and car manufacturers offer low-interest loans. What are the advantages and disadvantages of these price reduction methods?

Pricing- This is one of the most important components of the marketing activities of any enterprise.

Its commercial results depend on how competently and thoughtfully the pricing is structured, and therefore, how well thought out the company’s pricing policy is.

The essence of pricing is to determine what prices need to be set for goods (services) in order to capture part of the market, ensure the competitiveness of a given product in terms of price indicators and determine the amount of profit.

For producers operating in the market (regardless of the form of organization of ownership), the question of the price of a product (service) is of great importance. Price is closely related to many determinants of marketing. The company's profitability, financial stability and viability depend on it.

By pursuing a certain pricing policy, the company actively influences both the volume of sales and the amount of profit received. Typically, an organization does not set a goal of obtaining momentary “profit” by selling a product (service) at the maximum price.

The price is influenced by external factors(consumer sector, market environment, level of competition, suppliers and intermediaries, economic situation in the country (region), government price regulation) and internal factors(company goals, marketing strategy, pricing policy).

The common goals of any commercial organization influencing pricing are: obtaining maximum profit, “capturing” the maximum part of the market, leadership in product quality.

The correct methodology for determining prices, implementing a reasonable pricing policy, and choosing a reasonable pricing strategy are important components of the successful operation of any enterprise in market conditions.

Types of pricing.

1. Discriminatory education– is the sale of a product (service) at different prices, regardless of costs. Establishment of discriminatory prices is carried out depending on:

1) buyer segment, i.e. different buyers are willing to pay different prices for the same product;

2) product variants, i.e. different versions of a product (service) are sold at different prices, regardless of costs;

3) location of the goods, i.e. prices for goods in different places are set differently, even if the costs are the same;

4) time, i.e. the price depends on the season.

2. Psychological pricing– this is determining the price not only from the economic side, but also taking into account psychological factors.

As many sociological studies show, many consumers perceive the price level of a product as the level of quality (the higher the price, the better the quality).

3.Incentive pricing- this is a reduction in price (even below cost) for some time in order to increase sales in the short term. Used to reduce product inventories.

4. Geographic pricing– this is the establishment of different price levels depending on the distance from the manufacturer. This is mainly used to cover transport costs.

Pricing is a decisive marketing tool, and the price level is a kind of indicator of the functioning of competition. Price competition exists not only between producers, but also among traders. The manufacturer wants to control two prices: wholesale and retail, since its revenue largely depends on the first price, and the positioning of the product depends on the second. However, at the legal level (in many states), the right to set retail prices is reserved for retail trade organizations, which limits the possibilities of the manufacturer, who can only guess what price the seller will set based on his wholesale price and trade markup.

Thus, pricing has a direct impact on the production and marketing activities of the company, and therefore predetermines its commercial results.

Price- This is the most important element of the marketing mix. Firms do not just set a price, but develop a specific pricing policy.

Historically, price has been the main factor determining buyer choice. However, it should be noted that recently non-price factors have begun to significantly influence the buyer’s choice: product quality, advertising, service, etc.

Price- This is the ability of a product, expressed in monetary units.

Price- this is the ability to determine the competitiveness of a product, taking into account the amount of costs required for its acquisition and operation.

There are four main methods for determining the base (initial price).

1. Costly method. This is the simplest method in pricing. It lies in the fact that the price of a product is determined on the basis of all costs plus a certain fixed percentage of profit. This takes into account the goals of the entrepreneur, not the buyer.

2. Aggregate method. It lies in the fact that the price of a product is determined as the sum of prices for the individual components of the product, as well as the price of the aggregate (general) unit and the premium (discount) for the presence or absence of individual components.

3. Parametric method. It lies in the fact that the price of a product is determined taking into account its quality.

4. Pricing based on current prices. The essence of this method is that the price of a product is determined based on the prices of similar products, and this price can vary - be more or less.

The problem for the manufacturer is to determine the “right” price, but also to ensure that this price “generates income.” And since the market influences the entrepreneur, the latter must constantly monitor the price level for his product and adjust it using various methods. The following main methods are distinguished:

1) establishment of flexible and long-term prices: establishment of flexible prices depending on time and place;

2) setting prices by market segments: here prices vary depending on which market segment the product is located in;

3) depending on the psychological factor;

4) method of step differentiation: here, gaps (or steps) are identified between the price level in which consumer demand does not change;

5) redistribution of assortment costs;

6) redistribution of item costs: here an initially low price is set for the main product, and a high price for related products;

7) franking method: transport costs are taken into account here;

8) discount method: this method is used to stimulate sales.

In the market, setting the correct price for a product is a very complex procedure, since the price level is influenced by many factors, such as: production costs, prices of competitors, prices of imported analogues, level of demand, transportation costs, various duties and fees, advertising and various elements of sales promotion, etc.

To determine the optimal price level, a wide-format analysis of the above factors is necessary.

The price of consumption or the cost of purchasing a product consists of many components. The composition and structure of these costs are determined taking into account the functions of the product, the availability of additional services (service), their cost, remoteness and other factors.

The price also depends on the length of the consumer’s product life cycle (use life, expiration date, etc.).

As shown marketing research, consumers of different social groups they rank the price and quality of goods differently. And this means that when solving the problem of determining the level of competitiveness of a product (service), it is necessary to take into account different typical consumer groups and different market segments.

By solving the above issues, marketers determine the most optimal price for the product.

Depending on the sales chain, certain types of prices are distinguished.

1. Wholesale– these are the prices at which goods are sold to a wholesale buyer. This price includes the cost of production and the profit of the company.

2. Wholesale trade prices– these are the prices at which goods are sold from a wholesale buyer to a retail buyer. This price is equal to the cost of the product + profit + supply and sales margin.

3. Retail price– this is the price from retailer to the final buyer. And this price is wholesale price trade + trade margin.

Price- This is the most controlled element of a company's marketing.

The role of price lies in its main functions:

1. Accounting: shows how much labor and materials were spent on the production of goods (services).

2. Distribution: consists of the distribution and redistribution of GDP.

3. Stimulating: consists of stimulating an increase in the level of product quality, the introduction of scientific and technological progress into production, and the development of service.

4. Social: determining the level of well-being of society.

The price setting process is relatively complex and consists of the following steps:

1. Determination of the company's goals and pricing policy objectives.

2. Identification of all factors that may influence the pricing process.

3. Analysis of sales level for a certain period.

4. Determining the level of demand for the future.

5. Assessment of all company costs.

6. Research and analysis of prices of competing goods.

7. Determination of the pricing method.

8. Development of a pricing strategy.

9. Setting the final price.

10. Identification of the reaction of end consumers and intermediary firms to the set price.

Marketers should also consider psychological factor:

1) many consumers perceive price as an indicator of product quality;

2) setting prices taking into account prestige (typical for expensive goods);

3) strategy of unrounded amounts (for example, 100 rubles is perceived as significantly more than 99 rubles).

Pricing is influenced by various external factors: government policy, type of market, number of participants in the distribution channel, competitors, buyers.

The state exerts influence by fixing prices and regulating them by establishing “rules of the game” under free market prices.

Methods of government influence.

1. Entering state list prices.

2. “Freezing” prices for a certain time.

3. Fixation of prices of monopoly companies.

4. Establishing maximum markups on fixed prices.

5. Setting price limits for specific goods.

6. Setting a specific level one-time increase prices for certain goods.

In a free market price system, the government can:

1) introduce a ban on horizontal and vertical price fixing;

Prices are also determined by the type of market: pure competition, monopolistic competition, oligopoly and monopoly. For example, when pure competition the seller cannot set a price higher than the market price, since buyers are free in their choice and can purchase the desired product from another seller at a price acceptable to them.

Prices also depend on the number of participants in the distribution channel and may be: wholesale, purchasing and retail. Noticed than more quantity participants, the higher the prices.

The price is also influenced by the demand for goods, its nature, magnitude and degree of elasticity. There is an unspoken law in the market: demand and price are inversely proportional to each other, i.e. the lower the price, the higher the demand, and vice versa.

When determining the final price, it is necessary to take into account the influence of competitors’ prices, as well as their quantity. The company needs this information to decide on the positioning of its product on the market.

Indicators financial situation companies:

1. Profitability: profitability, capital productivity, capital return, owner quota, return on capital.

2. Liquidity: absolute, relative and current liquidity, accounts receivable turnover ratio and inventory turnover ratio.

3. Financial stability: degree of self-financing, debt, assets, investment coverage, and cash flow.

There is a relationship between price and consumer purchases and perceptions.

Law of Demand: Consumers typically buy more goods at low prices than at high prices.

Price elasticity is the percentage change in the quantity demanded for each percentage change in price, i.e. the largest changes in price lead to fairly large changes in the quantity demanded. At the same time, total income decreases.

Inelastic demand– price changes have little effect on the level of demand.

Unitary demand– changes in prices are compensated by changes in the volume of demand.

A particular demand is based on the following criteria: the availability of substitutes and the importance of consumption.

There are four types of consumer categories depending on the orientation of their purchases.

1. Economical: consumer choice depends on the value of the purchase, its quality, assortment and price level.

2. Personalized: focus on prestige trademark, prices are almost equivalent

3. Ethical: original patriots of small companies.

4. Apathetic: they don’t care about prices, the main thing is ease of purchase

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