What is the essence of a quiet management revolution? Historical background for the emergence of scientific management. Development of management theory and practice

LECTURE 5

The evolution of strategic management

LECTURE 4

In its development, SM went through the following main stages:

> First step. 1950-1960s Strategic planning was long-term planning for product production and market development. Around this time long term plans became the focus of attention in developing the strategic behavior of the organization. New approaches to achieving competitive goals are emerging;

> second phase. 70s The meaning of strategic choice has changed significantly, which was no longer a fixation of production plans for the long term, but was an answer to the question: “What to do with that business that has been successful so far, but may lose its attractiveness due to changes in consumer priorities?”;

> third stage. 1980-1990s The dynamism of the external environment has so complicated the task of timely adaptation to changes that occur in all spheres of social life that the organization’s ability to properly respond to such an environmental challenge has become the essence of its strategic behavior. The basis of strategic decisions was now the choice of such behavior at the current moment, which would ensure the prosperity of the organization in the future;

> fourth stage. First decade of the 21st century. - sharp increase in factor external environment. Awareness of the need to develop a strategy focused on changes in the external environment, the elements of which are diversification, integration, and development of new markets.

D. Campbell and D. Stonehouse are inclined to believe that the next stage in the development of management science will be “knowledge management”. The main tasks of this area of ​​management:

> creation of new knowledge that has primarily commercial value;

> knowledge training;

> introduction of knowledge into production and management processes;

> storage and protection of knowledge.

The term “strategic management” was coined at the turn of the 60s and 70s. XX century to denote the difference between the management of the production and economic system at the production level (“current”) and its management carried out at top level. The need to fix such a difference is caused by changes in business conditions, the importance of shifting the focus of attention in a particular business to the situation in its environment in order to promptly and appropriately respond to changes occurring in it. Development of ideas strategic management was reflected in the works of Frankenhofs, Grängtjer, Apsoff, Schönbed and Hattei, Irwin and others.

The ideas of SM are a clear manifestation of the “quiet management revolution” that began in the American economy in the 1970-1980s. Having discovered the inability of their managers to cope with the growing difficulties in the external environment during the most protracted economic crisis in the entire post-war period (1973-1981), American corporations were faced with a crisis in the controllability of their economic systems. The search for a way out of it was carried out not only through improving the qualifications of management personnel, but also through the transition to a new “management paradigm”, the essence of which is a certain departure from managerial rationalism, from the initial belief that the success of a company is determined by the rational organization of production, cost reduction by identifying internal production reserves, increasing labor productivity and the efficiency of using all types of resources.

The new paradigm is based on:

> based on systemic and situational approaches to management: the corporation is viewed as an open system; the main prerequisites for the successful operation of a company are found not only inside, but also outside, i.e. success is associated with how well the company adapts to the external environment - scientific, technical, economic, social, political, etc.;

> on the concept of the company as social system. Not only the nature of strategies, the type of organizational structures, planning and control procedures, but also the leadership style, qualifications of people, their behavior, reaction to innovations and changes must be constantly analyzed and improved when building organizational management systems.

Within the framework of the “new paradigm”, particular importance is attached to factors organizational culture- established values ​​in the organization, individual and group norms of behavior, attitudes, types of interactions, etc.

In its development, SM went through the following main stages:

First stage. 1950-1960s Strategic planning was long-term planning for product production and market development. Around this time, long-term plans became the focus of strategic behavior for organizations. New approaches to achieving competitive goals are emerging;

Second phase. 70s The meaning of strategic choice has changed significantly, which was no longer a fixation of production plans for the long term, but was an answer to the question: “What to do with that business that has been successful so far, but may lose its attractiveness due to changes in consumer priorities?”;

Third stage. 1980-1990s The dynamism of the external environment has so complicated the task of timely adaptation to changes that occur in all spheres of social life that the organization’s ability to properly respond to such an environmental challenge has become the essence of its strategic behavior. The basis of strategic decisions was now the choice of such behavior at the current moment, which would ensure the prosperity of the organization in the future;

Fourth stage. First decade of the 21st century. - a sharp increase in environmental factors. Awareness of the need to develop a strategy focused on changes in the external environment, the elements of which are diversification, integration, and development of new markets.

D. Campbell and D. Stonehouse are inclined to believe that the next stage in the development of management science will be “knowledge management”. The main tasks of this area of ​​management:

Creation of new knowledge that has primarily commercial value;

Knowledge training;

Introduction of knowledge into production and management processes;

Storage and protection of knowledge.

The "quiet management revolution" of the early 1980s.

The term “strategic management” was coined at the turn of the 60s and 70s. XX century to denote the difference between the management of the production and economic system at the production level (“current”) and its management carried out at the highest level. The need to fix such a difference is caused by changes in business conditions, the importance of shifting the focus of attention in a particular business to the situation in its environment in order to promptly and appropriately respond to changes occurring in it. The development of strategic management ideas was reflected in the works of Frankenhofs, Grentger, Apsoff, Schönbed and Hattei, Irwin and others.

The ideas of SM are a clear manifestation of the “quiet management revolution” that began in the American economy in the 1970-1980s. Having discovered the inability of their managers to cope with the growing difficulties in the external environment during the most protracted economic crisis in the entire post-war period (1973-1981), American corporations were faced with a crisis in the controllability of their economic systems. The search for a way out of it was carried out not only through improving the qualifications of management personnel, but also through the transition to a new “management paradigm”, the essence of which is a certain departure from managerial rationalism, from the initial belief that the success of a company is determined by the rational organization of production, cost reduction by identifying internal production reserves, increasing labor productivity and the efficiency of using all types of resources.

The new paradigm is based on:

On systemic and situational approaches to management: the corporation is viewed as an open system; the main prerequisites for the successful operation of a company are found not only inside, but also outside, i.e. success is associated with how well the company adapts to the external environment - scientific, technical, economic, social, political, etc.;

On the concept of the firm as a social system. Not only the nature of strategies, the type of organizational structures, planning and control procedures, but also the leadership style, qualifications of people, their behavior, reaction to innovations and changes must be constantly analyzed and improved when building organizational management systems.

Within the framework of the “new paradigm”, particularly important importance is attached to factors of organizational culture - values ​​established in the organization, individual and group norms of behavior, attitudes, types of interactions, etc.

Management has undergone centuries of evolution within various socio-economic formations. The stages of this development in the literature are proposed to be considered management revolutions, implying significant qualitative changes in management itself and its place in society.

First management revolution occurred about seven thousand years ago and was called religious-commercial.

Already in ancient societies - Sumer, Egypt and Akkad - there was a stratification of the highest caste of priests, which occurred because they reformulated the fundamental religious principles in their own way. If earlier the gods demanded human sacrifices, then later, according to the priests, they began to need a symbolic sacrifice. The gods will be satisfied if believers limit themselves to offerings of money, livestock, oil, handicrafts, etc. The tribute collected from the population in this way (as if within the framework of a ritual) was accumulated, exchanged, and put into economic circulation. Thanks to the replenishment of monetary funds, the Sumerian priests became a rich and influential layer. Clay tablets have been preserved on which the priests of Sumer kept legal, historical, business records, checked accounting calculations, carried out supply, control and other functions, and managed the movement of funds. And in our time, these operations relate to management processes. The advent of writing was a by-product management activities priests, since it was simply impossible to remember the increasing volume of business information.

As a result of the first revolution in management, management emerged as an instrument of commercial and religious activity, gradually turning into a special social institution and a new professional occupation.

Second revolution in the field of management occurred approximately a thousand years after the first and was associated with the name of the Babylonian king Hammurabi (1792–1750 BC), who developed a set of laws of government to regulate the diversity of social relations between different social groups population. According to these laws, a secular management style was introduced, control was strengthened, and responsibility for the performance of work increased. Management was carried out at the macroeconomic level - the level of the entire country. Therefore, the second management revolution is usually called secular-administrative.

Hammurabi developed his own leadership style and constantly maintained his image as a guardian and protector of people. For that time, this was an undeniable innovation.

Consequently, the essence of the revolution lies in the transfer of control from religious figures to secular rulers. Characteristic is the emergence of the first formal system for organizing and regulating people's relationships, the emergence of the first sprouts of a leadership style and new methods of motivating behavior.

Third management revolution known as production and construction, since it involved the use of state management methods in the sphere of production and construction. This event is associated with the name of Nebuchadnezzar II. King Nebuchadnezzar II (605–562 BC) was not only the author of the designs for the Tower of Babel and the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, but also developed and implemented the system production control in textile factories and granaries. In textile factories, Nebuchadnezzar introduced the use of colored labels, which were used to determine the amount of yarn entering production each week. This control method made it possible to accurately determine how long a particular batch of raw materials had been in the factory. Note that this applies at its core and in modern textile industry. Many management innovations were introduced in Ancient Rome. The most famous of them are the system of territorial government of Diocletian (243–316) and administrative organization The Roman Catholic Church, which used the principles of functionalism.

The Fourth Management Revolution associated with the emergence of capitalism and the beginning of the industrial development of European countries in the 17th–18th centuries. Its main features are the separation of management from property and the emergence of professional management. Industrial Revolution and related new ones public relations had a much greater impact on the theory and practice of management than all previous revolutions.

As industry developed, in particular outgrowing the boundaries of the early factory system (manufacture), a system of joint stock capital was formed. A new, transformed form of ownership emerged, which helped accelerate the development of industry and led to the separation of management from production and capital, which led to the transformation of management into a professional activity.

Administration began to be interpreted as the process of forming the general goals and policies of the company. Management was then understood as control over the implementation of plans. Management and administration appointed by shareholders became their authorized representatives at the industrial enterprise. With the growth of production volumes, the rate of capital turnover accelerated, the volume and content expanded. banking operations. The sphere of product sales has progressed, and marketing has emerged and become an integral part of management. Management could no longer be effective on the basis of common sense alone. It required a lot of special knowledge, skills and abilities of specialists.

In management, however, functions were constantly expanding. Its scope gradually included planning, office work, sales, purchasing, improvement of organization, and statistical analysis of production. A system for forming and executing the enterprise budget has emerged and developed. As a result, everyone manufacturing process has developed into an independent function and sphere of activity of management. Management and administration developed and implemented special tools for coordinating personnel activities, including a decision-making system, defining company policy goals, and introducing a management philosophy.

The fourth revolution in management marked the entry into the arena of a completely new figure - the entrepreneur. The urgent need for quality professional management led to the formation of a new type of “manager” – the hired manager.

Fifth management revolution, which occurred at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century, is known as bureaucratic. Its theoretical basis was the concept of “rational bureaucracy” proposed by M. Weber. It is characterized by: the formation of large hierarchical structures, the division of managerial labor, the introduction of norms and standards, formalization job responsibilities and managerial responsibilities.

In 1886, Henry R. Towne proposed that management was a field of study equal in importance engineering, and requires the development of a scientific discipline within which the accumulated experience would be systematized into principles and theories. This was a response to the needs of industrial development, which increasingly acquired such specific features as mass production and mass distribution, orientation towards large-capacity markets and large-scale organization in the form of powerful corporations and joint stock companies. Giant enterprises experienced an urgent need for rational organization production and labor, in the clear and interconnected work of all departments and services, managers and performers in accordance with scientific principles, norms, and standards.

2. School of Scientific Management
(end of the 19th century – 20s of the 20th century)

Scientific management was the first approach in the history of management theory and is associated with the search for the most productive use of human and material resources. These studies were most developed at the beginning of the 20th century, when there was a shortage of qualified work force in the United States, due to the urgent need to increase labor productivity.

Frederick W. Taylor (1856–1915) is considered the father of scientific management. Trying to maximize production output in one of the companies, Taylor introduced timing into management practice, dividing the actions of workers into separate movements and measuring the time of execution of these movements. The results were then analyzed to design more effective methods and techniques. In addition, Taylor developed tariff system workers' compensation. He introduced this innovation so that workers would not have to worry about being paid less if they completed their work too quickly.

Taylor developed his work on time expenditure by isolating and analyzing the individual movements of the most highly productive workers. Other workers were then trained to perform the most effective work techniques. By introducing his system of “more pay for more productivity” and establishing rest breaks for workers, Taylor was able to achieve his first goal in management - to consolidate high wages with low labor costs.

Taylor's system of scientific labor organization, described in his books Factory Management and Principles of Scientific Management, was built on four basic principles:

1. Scientific selection and training of workers. Efficiency required the selection of an appropriate worker for each type of work, who had some special abilities for this. Various tests have been developed to test workers' ability to perform certain types of activities.

2. Scientific approach to the formation of work and rest regimes. The scientific study of time, movement, effort must be developed to train and educate the worker to achieve maximum efficiency.

3. Cooperation between workers and administration in introducing methods of scientific organization of labor. Workers must be motivated to adopt new methods. So Taylor offered to pay them for what they did and give them bonuses if they exceeded the quota.

4. Fair distribution of responsibilities between workers and managers. Effective use of personnel requires friendly cooperation between labor and management.

Other pioneers of scientific management include the married couple F.B. (1868–1925) and L.M. Gilbrett (1878-1972), who worked together to study worker fatigue and mobility, and ways to improve the general condition of the individual worker.

According to F. Gilbrett's theory, movement and fatigue are directly related. When unnecessary movement was removed from the worker's actions, a certain amount of fatigue was also removed. This not only made the worker more efficient, but also affected his overall condition. In their approach, the Gilbretts stood on scientific basis, as they sought to eliminate wasteful and unproductive activities in the workplace. Strictly analyzing the components of the labor process, they looked for the only, most effective way doing the work. For example, as a result of studying the work of masons, F. Gilbrett reduced the number of basic movements that this work required from sixteen to eight.

In our country, the ideas of scientific management in the conditions of the formation of a new social system and a socialist economic system were developed by A.A. Bogdanov (1873–1928), A.K. Gastev (1882–1941), O.A. Yermansky (1866–1941), P.M. Kerzhentsev (1881–1940), E.F. Rozmirovich (1885–1953) and many other scientists and practitioners who worked in various scientific organizations and institutes. They concentrated their efforts on substantiating the principles of management of socialist enterprises and on developing new approaches to the organization of labor and production. At that time, these were problems of paramount importance, directly related to the formation of a new system.

3. Administrative (classical) school
in management (20–50s of the XX century)

Management grew out of the need to control and determine the behavior of employees in large, complex organizations.

The founders of the school of administrative management, better known as classical school, had experience as managers senior management management in big business. Thus, Henri Fayol led a large French coal mining company, Lyndall Urwick was a management consultant in England, etc.

The goal of the classical school was to create universal management principles, following which would lead the organization to success. Management principles are considered as general rules, reflecting management requirements under certain conditions social development. The practical use of these rules ensures the unity of approaches to the formation of organizational management systems.

These principles covered two main aspects. One of them was development of a rational organization management system.By defining the main functions of a business, representatives of this school were confident that they could determine The best way dividing the organization into divisions and working groups.

According to Fayol, every organization carries out activities such as production, commercial, financial, accounting, security and administrative functions. The last direction was given the greatest importance in ensuring the success of the organization, which is why the school was called “administrative”.

Fayol's main contribution to management theory was that he considered management as a universal process consisting of several interrelated functions, such as planning, organization, management, coordination, control.

Fayol formulated fourteen management principles, which have been widely used as a guide for modern management(Table 2.1).

From Fayol's point of view, management is not an innate talent, but an art that can be taught.

Table 1 Principles of management according to A. Fayol

In domestic developments of the same period, much attention was paid to the substantiation of management principles that take into account the features of the socialist economic system. The basis for the management system of any object was laid down by principles that take into account such features of socialist management as centralization and direct control of the production and economic activities of enterprises from the outside government agencies. Taking these principles into account, the theory of functions, structures and management processes at all levels was developed.

4. School of Human Relations
and behavioral sciences

The school of human relations that existed in the 20-50s of the 20th century was focused primarily on methods for establishing interpersonal relationships. The biggest authorities in this school are Mary Parker Follett and Elton Mayo.

The emergence of the school of human relations is usually associated with the Hawthorne experiment, which took place at the Western Electric Hawthorne plant in Cicero, Illinois. These studies were initiated to test the impact of changed working conditions on workers' productivity.

The first phase was defined as the "light experiments" (1924–1927). As a result of the experiment, it turned out that there are no direct cause-and-effect relationships between a single environmental factor (lighting) and worker productivity.

Work morale remained high and productivity increased as workers felt that they were an important part of the group effort and were involved in the decision-making process. This phenomenon was called Hawthorne effect.

Based on these experiments, Mayo proposed replacing the concept of the “rational worker” with the concept of the “social worker.” The experiment found that workers were motivated more by social needs (such as group approval), satisfaction from doing important work, and the need to solve a problem than by economic incentives.

The first person to define management as “getting work done through the help of others” was Mary P. Follett (1868–1933). She argued that the hierarchical distinction between managers and subordinates was artificial and that it obscured the natural partnership between labor and management. Managerial leadership should be based on the superior knowledge and abilities of the manager rather than on traditional lines of authority.

Oliver Sheldon (1894–1951) emphasized the social obligation of business to treat workers with respect. He also insisted that in addition to efficiently producing goods and services, business has an ethical responsibility to society. For example, a factory that has the technical ability to create a new cleanliness control product environment, must do it for the common good, whether it can generate income or not.

Chester E. Barnard (1886–1961) raised the issue that the needs and goals of a business organization must be balanced with the needs and goals of its individual members. If people formally organize themselves to achieve goals, they can perform better than if they act individually. Barnard also recognized the importance of the informal subgroups that form within every organization, noting that managers must take these groups into account when making decisions.

Charles Barnard's book “The Functions of the Administrator” (1938) greatly influenced the entire field of management. Barnard begins by establishing the causes and then the nature of coherent systems. Its logic is as follows:

1. Physical and biological limitations inherent in individuals force them to cooperate and work in groups.

2. Cooperation leads to the emergence of coordinated systems in which there are physical, biological, personal and social factors or elements. The continuation of cooperation depends on effectiveness (whether it achieves goals) and efficiency (whether goals are achieved with minimal dissatisfaction and minimal costs for the collaborating participants).

3. Any coordinated system can be divided into two parts: the “organization”, which includes only the interactions of people in the system, and the “other elements”.

4. Organizations, in turn, can be divided into two types: “formal” organizations, that is, those that establish consciously coordinated social interactions having a specific and common goal, and “informal” organizations, which mean social interactions that not having a common or consciously coordinated joint goal.

5. A formal organization can exist if individuals: a) are able to communicate with each other; b) agree to contribute to group action and c) have a conscious common goal.

6. Every formal organization must include the following elements: a) a system of functioning; b) a system of effective and efficient incentives that will encourage people to contribute to group action; c) a system of power (“authority”), which inclines group members to agree with the decisions of administrators; d) a system of logical decision making.

7. The functions of the administrator in this formal organization are as follows: a) maintaining organizational communication through organizational structure plus loyal, responsible and capable personnel, as well as the corresponding administrative “informal organization”; b) ensuring the activities of the most important areas by the efforts of individuals included in the organization; c) a formulated definition of the goal (i.e. planning).

8. Administrative functions enter into this process through the activities of the administrator of the organization as a whole and in finding the optimal balance between opposing forces and events.

9. In order for an administrator to work successfully, he must be able to take full responsibility for his actions. According to Barnard, collaboration with employees is a creative process, so the manager must be able to lead.

The focus directly on the workers themselves coincided with the birth industrial psychology. A prominent figure in the early stage of this movement was Hugo Münsterberg (1863–1916). In his book Psychology and Industrial Efficiency, first published in 1912, Münsterberg proposed methods for selecting people whose mental qualities make them more suitable for the job at hand. His merit is also the identification of psychological conditions that make it possible to obtain the most satisfactory result from the work of each person.

Münsterberg's proposals eventually led to tests aimed at determining workers' aptitudes in various fields.

The behavioral approach was more focused on the feelings and thoughts of workers than the classical approaches. The development of sciences such as psychology and sociology and the improvement of research methods after World War II made the study of workplace behavior more rigorously scientific. Among the largest figures of the later period of development of the behavioral (behaviorist) direction, we can mention, first of all, Chris Argyris, Rensis Likert, Douglas McGregor and Frederick Herzberg. These researchers studied various aspects social interaction, motivation, the nature of power and authority, organizational structure, communication in organizations, leadership, changes in the content of work and the quality of work life.

In the most general outline The main goal of this school was to increase the efficiency of the organization by increasing the efficiency of its human resources.

The most important contribution of the behavioral approach has been the increased understanding of human motivation, worker behavior in groups, personal relationships at work, and job satisfaction.

The behavioral approach was so popular that it almost completely covered the entire field of management in the 60s of the 20th century. His main tenet was that the correct application of behavioral science will always improve the effectiveness of both the individual employee and the organization as a whole. However, despite many important positive results, the behaviorist approach sometimes failed in situations different from those studied by its adherents.

The emergence of management in this century may prove to be a turning point in history.

P. Drucker

The essence and necessity of management

The English word “management” has its roots in the Greek word “manus,” which means “hand, force.” It originally referred to the field of animal management and meant the art of controlling horses. Today, the word “management” is identified with the ability to lead, make the right decisions and means the field of science and practice of managing people and organizations.

The concept of “management” (English “manade”) has been transformed and reflected the variety of requirements for management as the art of doing business (business), work style, and the ability to achieve high labor results in a competitive environment.

Management is a type of scientific and practical management, i.e. management of people and production, which allows solving assigned tasks in the most humane and economical way.

Management is a system of current and long-term planning, forecasting and organization of production, sales of products and services in order to make a profit.

Management is the art of doing business, managing a particular object, it is the possession of professional skills with the help of effective management principles, a sense of ownership, combined with both a sensitive, caring attitude towards people, and the use of techniques that eliminate rigid administration, while achieving successful achievement of the set goals.

Manager who has professional knowledge on organization and management of production, called manager.

There are certain requirements for the manager (Fig. 2.1).

Rice. 2.1. Manager requirements

An example of a talented manager is an American Lee Iacocca. In the early 1980s. this “superhero from business” saved the Chrysler automobile concern from collapse. Lee Iacocca has proven himself to be a true marketing innovator. He took little from the traditional set of management recipes, relying on his experience and intuition as a business manager, entrepreneur. He formulated the characteristics effective management, in other words, management philosophy (Table 2.1).

Table 2.1

Philosophy of Management (by Lee Iaccoca)

Development of management theory and practice

The concept of “scientific management” was introduced by a representative of American freight companies Louis Brandeis in 1910

Theorist in the field of management of the 30s - 40s. XX century Luther Gulik noted that management becomes a science because it systematically studies phenomena, seeking to understand why and how people work together to achieve certain goals and to make these cooperative systems more useful to humanity.

Essentially the first manager was the English industrialist Robert Owen. At his spinning mill in New Lenark (Scotland) in 1820, Owen was the first to address issues of labor productivity and motivation, the relationship of the worker with the enterprise and the labor process. The manager became a real figure.

The first textbook on management is considered to be a book by an English professor of mathematics, engineer and entrepreneur. Charles Babage"The Economics of Machinery and Manufacture" (1832).

The founder of the classical school of management, and management in general, is Franklin Taylor who expressed his views in the works " Scientific organization labor" (1912), "Scientific foundations of organization industrial enterprises", "Taylor on Taylorism". Taylor came up with the idea of ​​organizing labor in such a way that the developed rules and laws would replace the personal judgments of the individual worker. The role of the manager, who is able to determine how and in what volume to do this or that work for the performer, has increased significantly.

Taylor viewed management as the art of knowing exactly what needs to be done and how to do it in the best and cheapest way.

Taylor formulated the following functions, elements and principles of scientific management(Fig. 2.2 – 2.4).

Theoretically, F. Taylor's work was substantiated by an engineer-sociologist Max Weber. He put forward the prerequisites that a rigid order, supported by appropriate rules, is the most effective method work. The entire organization, Weber believed, can be decomposed into its component parts, the work of each of them can be normalized, including the functions and the number of managers. This division of labor specializes the personnel and builds the organization along a linear basis, i.e. everyone is responsible for their actions only to their superior. This is the meaning of M. Weber's bureaucratic system. At the upper levels of management, the principle of combining power and responsibility was recommended, when the manager was given strictly limited powers and pre-agreed responsibility, which managers were not allowed to violate (Fig. 2.5).

Rice. 2.2. Management function (according to F. Taylor)

Rice. 2.3. Elements of management (according to F. Taylor)

Rice. 2.4. Principles of management (according to F. Taylor)

Rice. 2.5. Principles of management (according to M. Weber)

Rice. 2.6. Management functions (according to A. Fayol)

The development of F. Taylor's ideas was continued by the French engineer Henri Fayol. In his book “General and industrial management"(1916) he divided all operations at the enterprise into groups:

• technical (production, processing);
• commercial (purchase, sale, exchange);
• financial (raising capital and its effective use);
• insurance (protection of property and person);
• accounting (accounting, statistics, inventory);
• administrative

and determined the relative importance of these operations for personnel and the enterprise (Table 2.1)

According to Fayol, to manage is to lead an enterprise towards a goal, trying to make the best use of its resources, ensuring the correct course of six operations, the last one being referred to by Fayol as management.

Fayol identified the functions of management, which still form the basis of this science (Fig. 2.6).

A. Fayol also gave general characteristics functional management (Fig. 2.7).

The provisions described above characterize the first stage of management development - business administration(Fig. 2.8).

In the 20s - 30s. XX century In the USA, theoretical studies of human relations in production were carried out, which were the first attempt to concentrate management on the human factor. The main goal of the development was to study human behavior in a production environment and the dependence of labor productivity on the moral and psychological state of the performer. This idea underlies the second stage of management development - human resource management.

Table 2.1

The founder of the second stage is Enrique Mayo, who studied the dependence of labor productivity on the level of illumination of the workplace. Here are his conclusions:

Rice. 2.7. Principles of management (according to A. Fayol)

• man is a “social animal”;
• a rigid hierarchy of subordination and formalization of organizational processes are not compatible with human nature;
• solving a person's problem is the business of businessmen.

Human behavior in the work environment was studied by D. Karnesh, M. Small, M.A. Robert, M. Woodcock, D. Francis and others. Among Soviet scientists (1920s, USSR), noteworthy are the works of A.K. Gasteva: “The worker who operates the machine is the director of the enterprise, which is known under the name of the machine (machine, tool).”

Rice. 2.8. The first stage of management development

The views of E. Mayo and his followers were further developed in the works David McGregor the contents of which are presented in section 6 of this manual.

The third stage of management development is associated with the name Paula Dupont who noted that for successful business development it is necessary to focus on the consumer, and any enterprise should be considered as an open, not a closed system. The idea of ​​business management is a focus on maximizing profits and flexibility in meeting the needs of the buyer.

There are two approaches to the business management process. The first approach, functional, consists of the separation of management functions, which include planning, management decision-making, organization, staffing, effective communication, stimulation, leadership, control.

The second approach, role-based, which is more modern, focuses on managerial roles. Managerial functions are the result of what management is done for, and roles are the means to achieve these results. In the 1970s researcher Henry Mintzberg identified ten management roles of a top manager (Table 2.2).

Any business using both a functional and role-based approach will be successful if the business focuses on finding and developing personnel who:

Content

The essence of management activities…………………………… 2
The concept of the management category………………………………………………………. 3
Change of management paradigm; management in the conditions of transition to a market model of the economy……………………………………………………… 5
Comparative characteristics of the concepts: manager, entrepreneur, business……………………………………………………………… ……… 7
Development of theory and practice of management. Methodology for studying management, various approaches: traditional /selection of schools/, process, system, situational…………………………….. 9
Manager in an organization: role, main functions………………….. 17
Characteristics of a particular enterprise, its position in the market. Mission, main goals of your enterprise. Managers in your organization: areas, tasks of their activities…………………………. 19
Bibliography. ...…………………………………………... 22

The essence of management activities.
As a convincing example confirming that it is quite difficult to see what is common in the work of all managers, we can point to the essence of managerial work, what management work consists of in everyday practice. Most people, and practical managers themselves, believe that the routine work of a shop manager is not much different from the work of those he supervises. This seems reasonable when you consider that they constantly interact and receive almost equal rewards for their work. The job of a shop manager has much more in common with the job of a company president than with the job of the people under his control. Mintzberg, who synthesized earlier research and conducted a study examining the work of 5 senior executives, notes in his book The Nature of Managerial Work: :
“Almost every job in society requires specialization and concentration. Machine operators, having mastered the technique of making a part on a machine, can then engage in this operation for many weeks; engineers and programmers spend months developing a bridge or a computer program. The manager has no right to expect such uniformity in his work. Rather, it will be characterized by the short duration, diversity and fragmentation of the activities carried out. Guest, whose research shows that foremen perform an average of 583 different control operations per day, notes: “It is interesting to note that the characteristics of the work of a foreman, including variety, intermittency in the actions performed, and their fragmentation, are diametrically opposed to the work of many time mechanics, whose work highly streamlined, repetitive, uninterrupted, and executed in a constant, steady, unchanging rhythm of a moving assembly line.”

Management category concept
In order for an organization to achieve its goals, its objectives must be coordinated. Therefore managementis an essential activity for the organization. It is an integral part of any human activity, which to one degree or another requires coordination.
Ancient philosophers believed that the cause of the plight of society, as a rule, is the lack of proper governance or a violation of seniority between people.
The English word "management" comes from the root of the Latin word "manus" - hand; originally it related to the field of animal management and meant the art of managing horses. Later, this word was transferred to the sphere of human activity and began to denote the field of science and practice of managing people and organizations.
The concept of “management” is interdisciplinary in nature and the semantics of this word is very complex. The Fundamental Oxford English Dictionary defines management as follows:

A way, a manner of communicating with people.
Power and the art of management.
A special kind of skill and administrative skills.
Governing body, administrative unit.

Comparative characteristics of the concepts manager, entrepreneur, business.
The term entrepreneur (coined by the French economist Richard Cantillon) is a person who takes the risk associated with organizing a new enterprise or developing a new idea, new product or new type of service offered to society. The words “entrepreneur” and “manager” are not synonymous. The foundations of American industry were laid by a handful of courageous entrepreneurs in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Their names: John Rockefeller (oil), Morgan (steel and banking), Andrew Mellon (aluminum), Andrew Carnegie (steel), Ford (automobiles). The names of outstanding entrepreneurs of recent decades: J. Paul Getty (oil), Hunt (food industry), Edwin H. Land (Polaroid Corporation), John D. MacArthur (insurance). The thousands of people who start new businesses every year play a key role in the economy. Small businesses of an entrepreneurial nature play a vital role in the US economy. According to Nesbitt, 10.8 million of the 11 million total businesses in America are small businesses, employing 60% of the total workforce. Moreover, for the period 1972-1979. the number of super-small self-employed enterprises increased by 25%. Entrepreneurship, as a concept, is not limited to business. Innovative forms The controls introduced by General W. Grich into the US Air Force Tactical Forces Group transformed it from an ineffective, seriously flawed service into a model of military excellence in just six and a half years.
All entrepreneurs actively participate in shaping the goals of the organization and manage it at the beginning of its activities; all of them can be considered managers. Some turn out to be successful in their management activities not only at the beginning of the development of the enterprise, but also over a long period of operation of the enterprise. Although Ray Kroc bought the McDonald's name rather than founding his own company, his entrepreneurial push to industrialize hamburgers revolutionized the fast-food business. This and many other innovative management techniques introduced when Kroc was at the head of McDonald's led it to success. Often, however, characteristics such as personal risk taking, reaction to financial opportunities and the desire to work long and hard, i.e. what is traditionally considered to be the characteristics of a good entrepreneur are not necessarily indicative of the ability to manage effectively organization as it gets bigger. Some entrepreneurs may not have the ability to effectively perform management functions such as planning, organizing, motivating and controlling. The author of the study, which compares the characteristics of a successful entrepreneur and a successful manager, concludes: “Successful business leaders were able to bring organization to an unstructured situation and see the essence of their organization. Such leaders are capable of making decisions. This was not observed among entrepreneurs.” A successful business leader showed a positive attitude towards authority, while an entrepreneur does not want to recognize or submit to authority, shows an inability to work under leadership and, as a result, seeks to avoid such a situation. Therefore, it is not surprising that an outstanding entrepreneur becomes an ineffective manager. The organization that the entrepreneur created may even fall apart as a result. Research shows that in practice most new business ventures fail and the main reason is poor management. If an organization is lucky, it will have a good leader at the helm before it falls apart. Sears, for example, did not become a giant retailer until it was run by its founders, who gave it its name. Rosenwald, who bought Sears on the verge of collapse, turned it into an industry leader through innovative management and marketing policies.

Development of theory and practice of management. Methodology for studying management, various approaches: traditional /schools/, process, system, situational.
The history of management development identifies the following main stages of development:
First management revolution occurred 3,000 BC, when Sumerian priestesses regulating the exchange of various goods learned to write down the results of successful transactions, i.e. merchants and the first businessmen appeared who managed their business to achieve personal benefit.
Second management revolution, reflected the need to establish general rules for the entire society, which were issued by the Babylonian king Hamurapa in 1750 BC, as a set of laws for governing the state, protecting its citizens and limiting the arbitrariness of owners and officials.
Third management revolution occurred 1,200 years later, leading to the combination of state management methods with control over activities in construction and production, thereby, for the first time, sectoral management emerged and became special.
The emergence of capitalism and the beginning of industrial progress in European civilization required a change in the rules and methods of management in all spheres of public life; fourth management revolution, as a separation of the management of organizations from property owners, who began to hire managers of their factories, factories, and banks. Thus, management emerged from general management activities as an independent type of professional activity of hired managers.
At the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries. Very large and cumbersome organizations (trusts, syndicates) arose that were ineffective in management, which often led to crisis situations in the economy of entire countries. Happened fifth management revolution, called bureaucratic. It was at this time that new rules and methods of bureaucratic management were formed based on the division of labor between different levels and areas of management, job descriptions, the introduction of norms and standards, as well as the personal responsibility of everyone for the result of their work. However, gradually tough bureaucratic management lost its success, the extreme rationalism of classical schools fettered the creative forces of work collectives.
New schools of systemic and situational approaches emerged, which led to sixth – “quiet” management revolution in the second half of the 20th century.
Modern management uses the anticipation of changes in the system of values ​​and environmental conditions and, on this basis, applies flexible emergency non-standard solutions. To this end, organizations are increasingly turning to strategic planning and management methods.
Major schools of management.
The development of management practice has acutely raised the question of the need to substantiate issues of theoretical substantiation of issues related to management practice.
For the first time, the American engineer Frederick Taylor (1856-1917), author of the work “Fundamentals of Scientific Management” (1911), summarized the world’s centuries-old management experience and created scientific management.
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